EDUCATION  DEPT 


SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY, 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE 


OBSERVATION  AND  STUDY  OF  PLANTS. 


BY 


ELIZA  A.  YOUMANS, 

AUTHOR  OP  "THE  FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY,"  EDITOR  OF  HENSLOW'S  BOTANICAL 

CHARTS. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.    APPLETON   &    COMPANY, 

549    &   551    BROADWA.Y. 
1873. 


E<* 

^ 


ENTERED  a$cfc$ng't*  ^ct'pV^OEgress,  to  the  yfrar  1873,  by 
•''*'       '  '' 


J.'  APPEETON 
In  the  ofllce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


EOUCATtON 


INTEODUCTION. 


THE  First  Book  of  Botany,  for  the  use  of  beginners,  was 
designed  to  cultivate  the  observing  powers  of  the  young  by 
making  plants  themselves  the  regular  objects  of  study.  It 
was  published  three  years  ago,  and  adopted  by  numerous 
schools,  and,  upon  trial,  it  proved  so  satisfactory  that  there 
have  been  frequent  and  urgent  calls  for  a  more  advanced  book 
upon  the  same  method.  After  much  delay,  which  I  regret, 
but  have  been  unable  to  avoid,  a  Second  Book,  carrying  out 
the  plan,  is  now  ready,  together  with  an  instructive  series  of 
Botanical  Charts,  which  will  be  helpful  to  both  teachers  and 
pupils. 

In  the  preface  to  the  First  Book,  and  in  an  Essay  reprinted 
at  the  end  of  the  present  volume,  I  have  stated  the  purpose 
that  led  to  these  publications :  the  present  extension  of  the 
method  affords  a  suitable  occasion  for  presenting  some  further 
considerations  in  illustration  of  it.  I  had  two  objects  in  view, 
one  relating  to  the  subject  of  Botany,  and  the  other  to  the 
mental  cultivation  of  the  young. 

As  regards  the  science  itself,  it  seemed  to  me  to  be  very 
badly  dealt  with  in  the  schools.  In  many  it  is  not  taught  at 
all,  and  in  others  it  is  regarded  as  a  kind  of  superfluous  side- 
study,  of  such  secondary  importance  that  it  matters  little  in 
what  way  it  is  treated.  And  so  it  is  subordinated  to  the  school 
routine,  and  pursued  in  a  hurried  and  desultory  manner,  by 
books  and  recitations,  and  by  memorizing  second-hand  informa- 
tion. It  is  perfectly  well  known  that,  in  institutions  of  all 
grades,  students  often  "  go  through  "  the  botanical  text-books 

961676 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

Without  giving;  atfy  attention  whatever  to  the  objects  they  de- 
jserjbe';'  or,,  if  .they,  do  so-gt  all,  it  is  generally  in  an  incidental 
'ah'd'  ,»Jtatitfn!a|l  ;wa^7V^)erhaps  by  attacking  the  most  complex 
part  of  the  plant  first,  and  picking  flowers  to  pieces,  so  that  the 
pupil  may  quickly  indulge  in  the  shallow  pedantry  of  giving 
them  their  technical  names.  All  this  is  unjust  to  the  science. 
Like  arithmetic,  Botany  is  only  to  be  acquired  by  first  master- 
ing its  rudiments.  And  as,  in  arithmetic,  the  student  is  com- 
pelled to  exercise  his  mind  directly  upon  numbers,  and  work 
out  the  problems  for  himself,  so  in  Botany,  if  worth  pursuing 
at  all,  it  should  be  studied  in  its  actual  objects.  The  char- 
acters of  plants  must  become  familiarly  known  by  the  detailed 
and  repeated  examination  and  accurate  description  of  large 
numbers  of  specimens.  The  pupil  must  proceed  step  by  step 
in  this  preliminary  work,  digesting  his  observations,  and  mak- 
ing the  facts  his  own,  until  he  becomes  intelligent  in  regard  to 
all  the  common  varieties  of  plant  forms  and  structures.  It  is 
because  the  text-books  of  Botany  hitherto  in  use  fail  to  provide 
for  and  to  enforce  this  thoroughness  of  introductory  study  of 
the  characters  of  plants — fail  in  the  very  groundwork  of  the 
subject — that  the  present  plan  of  study  has  been  prepared. 

But,  it  will  be  asked,  "  Is  botanical  science,  after  all,  worth 
acquiring  in  so  painstaking  a  way  ?  "  This  is  an  important 
question,  and  brings  me  to  the  higher  purpose  I  had  in  the 
arrangement  of  these  books.  The  uses  of  Botany  are  by  no 
means  to  be  measured  by  the  interest  or  utility  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  plants.  A  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  science 
will  be  serviceable  on  its  own  account  through  life ;  but  its 
merit  is  that  it  leads  to  an  end  beyond  itself:  it  has  great 
value  as  a  means  of  mental  cultivation.  That  branch  of  Natu- 
ral History  which  treats  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  ought  to  be, 
and  can  be,  made  corrective  of  a  fundamental  defect  in  our 
educational  system.  This  deficiency  is  a  lack  of  any  provision 
for  thoroughly  exercising  the  minds  of  the  young  upon  natural 
objects.  Our  plan  of  general  education  includes  not  a  single 
subject  that  can  secure  the  mental  advantages  arising  from  the 
direct  and  systematic  study  of  Nature.  We  do  a  great  deal 
in  the  way  of  "  mental  discipline,"  but  the  order  and  truth  of 
things  around  us  are  not  allowed  to  contribute  to  it.  We 
train  the  faculty  of  calculation  and  drill  the  memory  in  lesson- 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

learning,  but  the  realities  of  Nature  find  no  place  at  our  schools 
as  means  of  mental  unfolding — for  training  in  observation,  and 
for  working  the  higher  faculties  of  reason  and  judgment  upon 
natural  things.  In  short,  for  calling  out  the  more  important 
powers  of  the  mind,  by  actual  exercise  upon  the  objects  of  sur- 
rounding experience,  our  educational  system  makes  no  pro- 
vision whatever.  Neither  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, nor  geography,  brings  the  mind  into  contact  with  Nature 
at  all ;  and  even  the  sciences  of  physics,  chemistry,  physiology, 
and  botany,  are  usually  acquired  from  books,  and  with  so  little 
regard  to  the  real  objects  of  which  they  treat,  that  as  means 
of  mental  improvement  they  are  of  very  slight  service. 

That  modern  education,  in  all  its  gradations,  is  profoundly 
deficient  in  this  respect,  has  long  been  recognized  and  de- 
plored by  the  most  enlightened  educators.  Dr.  Whewell,  for 
example,  late  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  one  of 
his  able  works  upon  Education,  says:  "The  period  appears 
now  to  be  arrived  when  we  may  venture,  or  rather,  when  we 
are  bound  to  endeavor,  to  include  a  new  class  of  fundamental 
ideas  in  the  elementary  discipline  of  the  human  intellect. 
This  is  indispensable  if  we  wish  to  educe  the  powers  which  we 
know  it  possesses."  Again,  he  remarks:  "There  are  perverse 
intellectual  habits  very  commonly  prevalent  in  the  cultivated 
classes,  which  ought,  ere  now,  to  have  been  corrected  by  the 
general  teaching  of  Natural  History.  We  may  detect,  among 
speculative  men,  many  prejudices  respecting  the  nature  and 
rules  of  reasoning  which  arise  from  pure  mathematics  having 
been  so  long  and  so  universally  the  instrument  of  intellectual 
cultivation."  And  again:  "In  order  that  Natural  History 
may  produce  such  an  effect,  it  must  be  studied  by  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  objects  themselves,  and  not  by  the  reading  of  books 
only.  Its  lesson  is  that  we  must,  in  all  cases  of  doubt  or  ob- 
scurity, refer,  not  to  words  or  definitions,  but  to  things.  The 
Book  of  Nature  is  its  dictionary ;  it  is  there  that  the  natural 
historian  looks  to  find  the  meaning  of  the  words  which  he 
uses."  * 

To  gain  the  mental  benefits  of  the  study  of  Natural  History 
here  proposed,  the  pupil's  attention  requires  to  be  concen- 
trated upon  a  limited  portion  of  it,  which  is  to  be  thoroughly 

i  "  Novum  Organum  Renovatum,"  p.  170. 


4  INTBODUCTION. 

mastered,  and  Botany  presents  special  and  eminent  advantages 
for  this  purpose.  He  is  brought  face  to  face  with  Nature,  and 
his  first  and  constant  work  is  the  observation  of  phenom- 
ena; not  merely  looking  with  the  eye,  but  recognizing  with 
the  'mind.  The  science  consists  of  a  comprehensive  system 
of  organized  and  closely-dependent  truths,  which  it  is  the 
business  of  the  student  to  trace  out  and  rediscover  for  him- 
self. From  the  beginning  he  is  engaged  in  comparing  his 
observations,  and  reasoning  upon  his  facts.  As  nothing 
can  be  done  without  terms,  to  mark  his  discriminations, 
he  commences  their  use  at  the  outset ;  and,  as  the  language 
of  Botany  is  more  precise  than  that  of  any  other  science, 
there  is  constant  drill  in  accuracy  of  description.  As  he  ex- 
tends his  familiarity  with  plant  characters,  the  work  of  com- 
parison and  grouping  calls  for  a  higher  exercise  of  thought. 
Finally,  in  classification,  which  is  the  goal  of  all  his  prepara- 
tory study,  he  engages  with  problems  of  increasing  complexity 
— the  grouping  of  plants  by  masses  of  resemblances — distinc- 
tion of  kinds  and  classes  of  things  by  likenesses  and  differ- 
ences of  unequal  values,  and  the  formation  of  groups  in  subor- 
dination to  each  other — all  of  which  involve  the  highest  ex- 
ercise of  judgment. 

Thus,  the  thorough  study  of  Botany  as  a  branch  of  Natu- 
ral History,  and  as  a  means  of  education,  not  only  "  communi- 
cates precision,  clearness,  and  method  to  the  intellect,  through 
a  great  range  of  its  operations,"  but  its  discipline  is  corrective 
of  the  most  common  defects  of  education,  and  is  eminently 
applicable  in  forming  judgments  upon  the  ordinary  affairs  of 
life.  Carelessness  in  observation,  looseness  in  the  application 
of  words,  hasty  inferences  from  partial  data,  and  lack  of 
method  in  the  contents  of  the  mind,  are  common  faults  even 
among  the  cultivated,  and  it  is  precisely  these  faults  that  the 
study  of  botanical  science,  by  the  method  here  proposed,  is 
calculated  to  remedy.  That  the  habit  of  systematic  arrange- 
ment, in  which  the  study  of  botanical  classification  affords  so 
admirable  a  training,  is  equally  valuable  in  methodizing  all 
the  results  of  thought,  is  testified  to  by  one  of  the  most  intel- 
lectual and  influential  men  of  our  time,  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill. 
He  was  a  regular  field  botanist,  and  cultivated  the  subject 
with  a  view  to  its  important  mental  advantages ;  and  his 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

great  work  on  logic  took  a  form  which,  could  not  have  been 
given  it  if  the  author  had  not  been  a  working  naturalist  as 
well  as  a  logician.  In  the  second  volume  of  his  <*  System  of 
Logic  "Mr.  Mill  says: 

"  Although  the  scientific  arrangements  of  organic  Nature 
afford  as  yet  the  only  complete  example  of  the  true  principles 
of  rational  classification,  whether  as  to  the  formation  of  groups 
or  of  series,  these  principles  are  applicable  to  all  cases  in  which 
mankind  are  called  upon  to  bring  the  various  parts  of  any  ex- 
tensive subject  into  mental  coordination.  They  are  as  much 
to  the  point  when  objects  are  to  be  classed  for  purposes  of  art 
or  business,  as  for  those  of  science.  The  proper  arrangement, 
for  example,  of  a  code  of  laws,  depends  on  the  same  scientific 
conditions  as  the  classifications  in  natural  history ;  nor  could 
there  be  a  better  preparatory  discipline  for  that  important 
function  than  the  study  of  the  principles  of  a  natural  arrange- 
ment, not  only  in  the  abstract,  but  in  their  actual  application 
to  the  class  of  phenomena  for  which  they  were  first  elaborated, 
and  which  are  still  the  best  school  for  learning  their  use." 

If,  therefore,  the  object  of  education  is  the  completest  cul- 
tivation of  the  powers  of  the  mind,  botanical  science  evidently 
has  a  very  strong  claim  to  a  regular  and  leading  place  in  our 
scheme  of  school-studies.  But  it  will  be  a  grave  mistake  to 
suppose  that  its  benefits  can  be  secured  by  the  mere  use  of  text- 
books, however  full  and  valuable  the  information  they  con- 
tain. Nor  are  they  to  be  gained  by  the  casual  examination  of 
plants,  nor  by  the  analyses  of  a  few  flowers,  with  the  aid  of 
keys  and  dictionaries,  nor  in  the  limited  time  usually  allotted 
to  the  subject.  The  study  must  be  commenced  early  and  pur- 
sued steadily  by  the  method  of  direct  observation,  until  its 
elementary  facts  and  principles  are  made  entirely  familiar. 

It  is  the  claim  of  the  First  and  Second  Books  of  Botany 
that  they  lead  the  pupil  over  this  indispensable  ground,  and, 
if  faithfully  followed,  they  will  lay  the  solid  foundation  of  the 
science,  and  will  contribute  to  that  desirable  bent  and  habit  of 
the  intellect  which  natural-history  studies  are  best  calculated 
to  impart.  They  are  not  intended  to  supersede  the  regular 
treatises  upon  the  science,  but  to  supplement  them  and  prepare 
for  them.  They  are  guides  to  self-education,  and  are  adapted 
for  use  in  school  or  out,  by  teachers  and  mothers,  whether 


D  INTRODUCTION. 

they  know  any  thing  of  the  subject  or  not,  and  by  pupils  with- 
out any  assistance  at  all.  A  large  amount  of  time  will  not  be 
required,  but  the  exercises  should  be  so  frequent  and  regular 
as  to  keep  the  subject  prominently  in  mind,  and  maintain  the 
interest  in  vegetable  forms. 

The  Second  Book  begins  where  the  First  left  off.  The  use 
of  magnifying-glasses  and  microscopes  is  commenced,  and  the 
work  now  becomes  more  close  and  thorough.  As  soon  as  the 
more  important  features  of  the  flower  are  known,  the  pupil 
is  introduced  to  the  leading  principles  by  which  plants  are 
arranged,  and  set  to  making  groups  of  those  that  most  nearly 
resemble  each  other  in  important  characters.  He  is  here  called 
upon  to  do  his  own  thinking,  and  to  form  opinions  as  to  the 
amount  of  resemblance  between  different  plants.  He  has  to 
decide  whether  a  certain  group  of  characters  presented  by  his 
specimen  is  most  like  one  or  another  group  presented  by 
other  plants,  and  this  leads  on  to  the  comparison  and  estimate 
of  the  relations  of  different  groups  with  each  other.  It  is  thus 
that  the  discipline  of  the  judgment  and  reason  begins  to  be 
secured  at  an  early  stage  of  the  study,  and  is  continued  with 
more  and  more  completeness  as  it  goes  on. 

I  am  much  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  George  C. 
Woolson  for  having  carefully  revised  the  proofs  of  the  present 
volume,  and  have  also  to  thank  Prof.  George  Thurber  for  valu- 
able suggestions,  both  in  regard  to  the  present  work  and  the 
revised  edition  of  Prof.  Henslow's  Charts. 

E.  A.  T. 
NEW  YOKK,  June,  1873. 


HENSLOW'S  BOTANICAL  CHAETS. 


LARGE  colored  diagrams  for  teaching  botany  are  so  valua- 
ble that,  in  the  absence  of  any  publications  for  the  full  and  sys- 
tematic illustration  of  the  subject,  lecturers  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  roughly  preparing  them  for  class-room  use.  Recog- 
nizing this  want  of  schools  and  students,  Prof.  J.  S.  Henslow, 
the  eminent  English  botanist,  who  has  done  so  much  to  sim- 
plify and  improve  the  elementary  teaching  of  the  subject,  took 
the  matter  up ;  and  one  of  the  last  works  of  his  life  was  to 
prepare  a  set  of  botanical  charts  for  educational  purposes. 
There  was  perhaps  no  other  living  man  so  competent  to  the 
task,  as  his  thorough  knowledge  of  the  science,  his  experience 
as  a  lecturer  to  the  Cambridge  students  when  he  was  profess- 
or in  that  university,  and  his  subsequent  teaching  of  the  par- 
ish children  at  Hitcham,  qualified  him  to  meet  the  wants  of  all 
grades  of  learners.  He  prepared  a  series  of  nine  large  sheets, 
and,  as  their  publication  was  expensive,  it  was  undertaken  as 
an  important  educational  work  by  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment of  the  English  Educational  Council.  "  Henslow's  Botan- 
ical Diagrams  "  have  had  a  high  reputation  for  their  scientific 
accuracy,  their  completeness  of  illustration,  their  judicious  se- 
lection of  typical  specimens,  and  their  skilful  arrangement  for 
the  purposes  of  education.  In  bringing  out  a  method  of  ele- 
mentary botany,  which  desires  to  give  every  advantage  in  its 
thorough  acquisition,  the  author  of  the  First  and  Second 
Books  felt  the  need  of  large  colored  diagrams,  and,  as  there  is 
nothing  of  the  kind  in  this  country,  while  the  importation 
of  Henslow's  series  is  costly,  her  publishers  were  induced 
to  incur  the  very  considerable  expense  of  publishing  a  revised 
edition  of  the  English  charts.  This  revision  and  reissue  were 
the  more  necessary,  as  the  foreign  edition  has  one  very  serious 
defect ;  it  was  compressed  into  so  small  a  space  that  the  figures 
often  overlapped,  producing  an  indistinct  and  confused  effect. 


8  HENSLOW's    BOTANICAL    CHARTS. 

The  American  edition  consists  of  six  large  charts,  and  the 
pictures  are  spread  over  twice  the  original  area,  giving  much 
greater  distinctness  and  a  very  attractive  aspect  to  the  series. 
Several  American  specimens  have  been  substituted  for  English 
species  which  do  not  occur  in  this  country,  and  illustrations 
of  the  classes  of  flowerless  plants  have  been  added,  for  which 
Prof.  Henslow  did  not  seem  to  find  room. 

In  the  plan  of  the  charts,  the  plant  is  first  represented  of 
its  natural  size  and  colors ;  then  a  magnified  section  of  one  of 
its  flowers  is  given,  showing  the  relations  of  the  parts  to  each 
other.  Separate  magnified  views  of  the  different  floral  organs, 
exhibiting  all  the  botanical  characters  that  belong  to  the 
group  of  which  it  is  a  type,  are  also  represented.  The  charts 
contain  nearly  five  hundred  figures  colored  to  the  life,  and 
which  represent  twenty-four  orders  and  more  than  forty  spe- 
cies of  plants,  showing  a  great  variety  of  forms  and  structures 
of  leaf,  stem,  root,  inflorescence,  flower,  fruit,  and  seed,  with 
numerous  incidental  characters  peculiar  to  limited  groups. 
All  these  are  so  presented  as  to  be  readily  compared  and  con- 
trasted with  each  other. 

The  charts  are  not  designed  to  supersede  the  study  of 
plants,  but  only  to  facilitate  it.  Their  office  is  the  same  as 
the  illustrations  of  the  book ;  but  they  are  more  perfect,  and 
bring  the  pupil  a  step  nearer  to  the  objects  themselves.  Many 
plant  characters  are  so  minute  that  they  are  difficult  to  find, 
and  much  is  gained  by  referring  first  to  the  enlarged  and  col- 
ored representations. 

Besides  this  special  assistance  in  object-study,  the  charts 
will  be  of  chief  value  in  bringing  into  a  narrow  compass  a 
complete  view  of  the  structures  and  relations  of  the  leading 
types  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  In  fact,  they  are  designed 
to  present,  fully  and  clearly,  those  groupings  of  characters  upon 
which  orders  depend  in  classification ;  while  in  several  cases 
of  large  and  diversified  orders  the  characters  of  leading  genera 
are  also  given  by  typical  specimens.  The  charts  will  thus  be 
found  equally  valuable  to  the  beginner,  the  intermediate  pu- 
pil, and  the  advanced  student.  A  Key  accompanies  the  charts, 
and  they  can  be  used  with  any  botanical  text-books,  and  dur- 
ing the  season  of  plants  they  should  be  upon  the  walls  of  every 
school-room  where  botany  is  studied.^ 


TO  TEACHEES. 


THE  First  Book  of  Botany  was  prepared  for  young  children, 
and  was  made  very  simple  and  elementary,  to  meet  the  wants 
of  juvenile  minds;  but  it  provides  for  a  course  of  rudimentary 
observations  which  are  not  to  be  dispensed  with  by  beginners 
of  any  age.  As,  however,  pupils  twelve  or  fifteen  years  old 
will  hardly  be  content  to  go  slowly  over  exercises  adapted 
to  young  children,  it  may  be  asked  how  these  should  proceed 
with  the  First  Book.  In  reply,  it  may  be  said,  that  Chap- 
ter IV.  of  the  First  Book,  upon  the  flower,  and  which  contains 
the  first  part  of  the  flower-schedule,  is  the  only  portion  of  it 
that  is  indispensable  to  entering  upon  the  Second  Book.  After 
this  is  acquired,  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  using  both  books 
at  the  same  time. 

I  would  suggest  that  an  excellent  way  for  older  pupils  to 
familiarize  themselves  with  the  plant  characters  pointed  out 
in  the  First  Book,  is  at  once  to  set  about  the  preservation  of 
plants,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXI.  of  the  Second  Book. 

They  may  begin  by  putting  a  variety  of  leaves  in  press, 
having  first  carefully  compared  them  with  the  pictures  and 
definitions  of  Chapter  I.,  First  Book.  At  each  change  of  the 
driers,  the  features  of  these  leaves  will  be  observed,  and  the 
names  denoting  them  recalled,  and  by  the  time  they  are  dried 
for  mounting,  it  will  be  possible,  by  the  aid  of  the  last  sched- 
ule of  the  chapter,  to  write,  upon  the  paper  holding  the  spe- 
cimen, an  accurate  scientific  description  of  it.  Let  this  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  pressing  of  entire  plants,  after  comparing  their 
different  organs  with  the  examples  shown  in  the  chapters  on 
the  Stem,  Inflorescence,  and  Roots.  The  attention  thus 
drawn  to  their  characters  will  be  kept  alive  in  changing  them 


10  TO    TEACHERS. 

and  caring  for  them,  and  the  attempt  completely  to  describe 
them,  when  dried  and  mounted,  will  go  far  toward  fixing  in 
the  mind  ideas  of  the  forms  and  structures  of  the  various 
organs,  and  the  terms  needed  in  description. 

But  the  constant  temptation  of  such  pupils  will  be  toward 
haste  and  inadequate  observation.  The  danger  is  that  plants 
enough  will  not  be  collected,  and  that  the  parts  of  such  as  are 
collected  will  not  be  studied  with  sufficient  care.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  teacher  will  therefore  be  constantly  needed  to 
check  the  too  rapid  passage  of  older  pupils  over  that  portion 
of  Botany  included  in  the  primary  book. 


CONTENTS. 


COURSE  FIEST. 

PAGE 

DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY 15 

CHAPTER  I.— THE  FLOWER 15 

Ex.  1.  The  Symmetry  of  Flowers 15 

2.  Complete  and  Incomplete  Flowers 18 

3.  Essential  Organs  and  Protecting  Organs 19 

4.  Dichlamydeous,  Monochlamydeous,  and  Achlamyde- 

ous  Flowers 20 

5.  Perfect,  Imperfect,  and  Neutral  Flowers 22 

6.  Monoecious,  Dioscious,  and  Polygamous  Plants 24 

7.  Form  of  Receptacle  and  Insertion  of  Floral  Organs. .  26 

8.  On  Polyandrous  Stamens 28 

9.  The  Growing  together  of  Stamens 30 

10.  The  Growing  together  of  Carpels. 32 

11.  Union  of  Floral  Whorls  with  each  other — Calyx  and 

Pistil 41 

12.  Union  of  Floral  Whorls  with  each  other — Corolla. . .  43 

13.  Union  of  Floral  Whorls  with  each  other — Stamens. .  46 

14.  The  Receptacle 53 

15.  Appendages  of  the  Receptacle 56 

CHAP.  II.— COMPARING  AND  CLASSIFYING  PLANTS. ...  59 

Ex.  16.  Plant  Characters  and  Affinities 59 

1Y.  How  to  begin  Classification 64 


12  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAP.  III.— THE  STAMENS 69 

Ex.  18.  Parts  of  Stamens 69 

19.  Number  and  Shape  of  Anther-Lobes 71 

20.  Dehiscence  of  Anther 73 

21.  Introrse  and  Extrorse  Anthers 74 

22.  Attachment  of  Filament  and  Anther 76 

23.  Forms  of  Filaments 78 

24.  Structure  and  Forms  of  Pollen 79 

25.  Forms  of  Connective 81 

26.  General  Features  of  Stamens. . .  83 


CHAP.  IV.— THE  PISTIL 85 

Ex.  27.  Kinds  of  Stigma 85 

28.  Form  and  Position  of  Styles 86 

29.  Kinds  of  Pistil 86 

80.  Structure  of  Ovaries 87 

81.  Placentation 91 

32.  Modes  of  Dehiscence 94 

33.  Direction  of  Ovules  and  Seeds 97 

34.  Parts  of  the  Ovule 98 

35.  Kinds  of  Ovule 100 

CHAP.  V.— THE  FRUIT  AND  SEED 102 

Ex.  36.  The  Composition  of  Fruit 102 

37.  Parts  of  the  Pericarp 104 

38.  The  Classification  of  Fruit 106 

39.  The  Seed.— Its  Form  and  Surface 113 

40.  Position  of  the  Embryo  in  Seeds 115 

CHAP.  VI— FLORAL  SYMMETRY,  PHYLLOTAXY,  PREFO- 

LIATION,  CYMOSE  INFLORESCENCE,  ETC...  119 

Ex.  41.  Numerical  Plan  of  the  Flower 119 

42.  Alternation  of  Parts  in  Flowers 120 

43.  Leaf  Arrangement. — Phyllotaxis 122 

44.  Arrangement  of  Floral  Leaves  in  the  Bud. — ^Estiva- 

tion, or  Prsefloration 128 

45.  Cymose,  or  Definite  Inflorescence 132 

46.  Duration  of  Floral  Envelops 137 

47.  Surfaces  .  .  .138 


CONTENTS.  13 

PAGE 

CHAP.  VII. —THE   COMPOSITE 139 

Ex  48.  Parts  of  Flower-Heads 139 

49.  The  Florets 143 

50.  Characters  of  Composite 148 

CHAP.  VIII.— THE  CRUCIFER^E,  OR  CROSS-BEARERS 152 

Ex.  51.  Characters  of  the  Cruciferse 152 

CHAP.  IX.— THE   UMBELLIFER^E 154 

Ex.  52.  Structure  of  its  Flowers  and  Fruit 154 

53.  Classification  of  Umbel-bearing  Plants 158 

CHAP.  X.— THE  LABIATE 162 

Ex.  54.  Characters  of  the  Labiates 162 

CHAP.  X[.-THE  CONIFERS iee 

Ex.  55.  Characters  of  the  Coniferae 166 

CHAP.  XII.— THE   ORCHID  ACE^J 174 

Ex.  56.  Characters  of  the  Orchidacese 174 

CHAP.  XIII.— THE   GRAMINE^E 178 

Ex.  57.  Characters  of  the  Gramineae 178 

CHAP.  XIV.— FLOWERLESS  PLANTS 184 

Ex.  58.  Ferns 184 . 

59.  Reproduction  of  Ferns 186 

60.  Mosses 189 

61.  Fungi 191 


COURSE  SECOND. 
VEGETABLE  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 194 

CHAP.  XV.— THE  INTERNAL  STRUCTURES  OF  PLANTS. . .   1 95 
Ex.  tJ2.  Cells  and  Cellular  Tissue 195 

63.  Structure  and  Production  of  Cells 197 

64.  Vessels  or  Ducts,  and  Fibres 201 

65.  The  Contents  of  Cells .208 


14  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAP.  XVI.— THE  STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS 212 

Ex.  66.  Structure  of  Dicotyledonous  Stems. — First  Year's 

Growth 212 

67.  Structure  of  a  Woody  Bundle 215 

68.  The  First  Year's  Growth— ( Continued) 217 

69.  Second  Year's  Growth  of  Dicotyledonous  Stems. .  221 

70.  Stalk  of  Monocotyledons 227 

CHAP.  XVII.— THE   ROOT 233 

Ex.  71.  True  Roots  and  Adventitious  Roots 233 

72.  The  Minute  Structure  of  Roots 235 

73.  Duration  of  Roots 238 

CHAP.  XVIII.— THE   LEAF 239 

Ex.  74.  The  Minute  Structure  of  Leaves 239 

CHAP.  XIX.— THE   PLANT   IN  ACTION 246 

Ex.  75.  Absorption  of  Food  by  Plants 246 

76.  Evaporation  and  Digestion 249 

77.  The  Circulation  of  Plants 253 

78.  The  Reproduction  of  Plants 255 

79.  The  Movements  of  Plants 258 

CHAP.  XX.— COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  PLANTS.  268 

Ex.  80.  How  to  gather,  press,  and  mount  Plants 268 

81.  Labelling  and  arranging  Plants 272 

AN  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  THE  BOTANI- 
CAL CHARTS 275 

GLOSSARY..  .                                                                           ..  277 


APPENDIX. — The  Educational  Claims  of  Botany 285 


THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY, 


COUBSE  FIRST. 

DESCRIPTIVE     BOTANY. 


C  H  A  P  T  E  K     I . 
THE   FLOWER. 

WITH  the  present  book,  we  are  to  continue  the 
method  of  studying  plants  that  was  commenced  with 
"The  First  Book  of  Botany."  It  is  assumed  that 
the  pupil  has  begun  the  work  of  practical  observa- 
tion, and  made  himself  familiar  with  the  general 
features  of  plants,  as  far  as  the  "  First  Book  "  goes. 
As  before,  the  indispensable  condition  of  the  method 
is-,  to  collect  a  large  variety  of  specimens  to  be  stud- 
ied. The  first  duty  of  each  pupil  is,  to  assist  in  gath- 
ering these  plant-specimens,  and  this  should  be  in 
every  way  encouraged,  and  positively  required,  by 
the  teacher. 


EXERCISE  I. 
The  Symmetry  of  Flowers. 

Having  gathered  a  variety  of  flowers,  look  care- 
fully at  the  pictures  and  definitions  given  in  the  fol- 


16 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


lowing  exercise.     When  you  have  found  their  mean- 
ing, you  will  be  prepared  to  study  your  flowers. 

A  SYMMETRICAL  FLOWER  is  one  having  the  same 
number  of  parts  in  each  of  its  whorls,  or,  if  not  the 
same,  then  multiples  of  the  prevailing  number. 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


Quinary  Symmetry. 


Quinary  Symmetry  (Gray). 


Figs.  1  and  2  represent  a  symmetrical  flower.  It 
consists  of  five  sepals,  five  petals,  five  stamens,  and 
five  carpels.  It  would  still  be  symmetrical  if  the 
number  of  sepals,  or  of  petals,  or  stamens,  or  car- 
pels, were  ten,  twenty,  or  any  multiple  of  five. 

A  flower  with  its  parts  arranged  in  twos,  or 
multiples  of  two,  has  dimerous,  or  binary  symmetry 
(Fig.  3). 


FIG.  8. 


FIG.  4. 


Binary  Symmetry. 


Ternary  Symmetry. 


THE    FLOWER.  IT 

When  the  parts  of  the  floral  whorls  are  in  threes, 
the  symmetry  is  trimerous^  or  ternary  (Fig.  4). 

When  the  parts  are  in  fours,  the  symmetry  is  te- 
tramerous,  or  quaternary. 

When  the  parts  are  in  fives,  the  symmetry  is  said 
to  be  pentamerouS)  or  quinary  (Tigs.  1  and  2), 

If  you  have  the  botanical  charts,  look  at  the  mag- 
nified flowers  represented  on  them,  and  point  out  the 
symmetrical  ones,  naming  the  kind  of  symmetry  they 
exhibit.  Then  examine  your  living  specimens.  These 
will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  season.  We  will  sup- 
pose, for  example,  that  you  have  the  pea,  morning- 
glory,  violet,  portulacca,  buttercup,  Saint- John' s- 
wort,  hollyhock,  potato-blossom,  evening  primrose, 
lily,  etc.  Decide  which  are  symmetrical  and  which 
are  unsymmetrical,  placing  the  two  kinds  apart.  Re- 
examine  the  symmetrical  ones,  and  tell  which  have 
binary  symmetry,  which  ternary,  which  quaternary, 
and  which  quinary. 

Binary — From  the  Latin  Mnarius,  compounded  of  two, 
parts  in  twos. 

Ternary — Latin  ternarius,  consisting  of  threes. 

Quaternary — Latin  quaternarius,  containing  four,  by  fours. 

Quinary — Latin  quinus,  five,  arranged  in  fives. 

Dimerous — From  two  Greek  words,  meaning  twofold  and 
part. 

Trimerous — From  two  Greek  words,  meaning  three,  or  thrice, 
and  part. 

Tetramerous—From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  four  and 
part. 

Pentamerous — From  two  Greek  words,  meaning  five  and 
part. 


18 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


EXEKCISE  II. 
Complete  and  Incomplete  Flowers. 

The  collection  of  flowers  that  in  the  previous  ex- 
ercise were  separated  into  symmetrical  and  unsym- 
metrical  ones,  may  now  be  rearranged,  separating 
the  complete  from  the  incomplete,  according  to  the 
following  definitions : 

COMPLETE  FLOWEES  consist  of  calyx,  corolla,  sta- 
mens, and  pistil  (Fig.  5). 

FIG.  5. 


Complete  Flower. 

INCOMPLETE   FLOWEES  have  one  or  more  of  the 
floral  whorls  absent  (Figs.  6  and  7). 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 


Incomplete  Flower. 


Incomplete  Flower. 


THE    FLOWER.  19 

Find  upon  the  charts  examples  of  complete  and 
incomplete  flowers. 

If  any  of  the  flowers  present  strange  appearances, 
let  them  pass ;  by-and-by,  after  further  study,  you  can 
put  them  where  they  belong. 


EXERCISE  III. 
Essential  Organs  and  Protecting  Organs. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  flower  is  the  production 
of  seed ;  but,  to  this  end,  some  of  its  parts  are  more 
necessary  than  others:  for  example,  the  action  of 
both  stamens  and  pistil  is  needed  in  the  formation 
of  seeds,  while  they  are  often  produced  without  the 
presence  of  either  calyx  or  corolla.  The  stamens  and 
pistil  are  therefore  called  the  essential  organs  of  flow- 
ers ;  and,  as  the  calyx  and  corolla  cover  and  nourish 
these,  they  have  been  called  the  protecting  organs. 

Point  out  upon  the  charts  the  protecting  organs 
of  flowers.  Point  out  the  essential  organs.  Do  you 
find  both  sets  in  all  the  flowers  represented  ? 

Examine  your  collection  of  flowers,  and  point  out 
in  each  specimen  the  essential  organs  and  the  pro- 
tecting organs. 

NOTE. — The  same  kinds  of  flowers  will  be  used  over  and 
over  in  observing  their  different  features  in  successive  exercises. 
But,  as  pupils  proceed,  new  kinds  should  be  constantly  sought 
for,  and,  when  obtained,  they  must  be  examined,  with  reference 
to  all  the  points  of  the  preceding  exercises.  New  kinds  of 
flowers  are  constantly  opening  as  the  season  advances ;  these, 
as  they  appear,  should  be  observed  with  reference  to  all  the 
points  that  have  been  before  studied. 


20 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  IV. 


Dichlamyd'eous,  MonoMamyd'eous,  and  Achla- 
myd'eous  Flowers. 

When  the  protecting  organs,  calyx  and  corolla, 
are  present  in  a  flower,  it  is  said  to  be  dichlamydeous 
(Fig.  8). 

FIG.  8. 


Dichlamydeous  Flower  (Gray). 


When  there  is  but  one  whorl  of  protecting  organs, 
whatever  its  color  or  texture,  it  is  called  a  calyx,  and 
the  flower  is  monochlamydeous  (Figs.  9  and  10). 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


Monochlamydeous  Flower. 


Monochlamydeous  Flower. 


THE    FLOWEK.  21 

A  flower  destitute  of  protecting  organs  is  ackla- 
mydeous  (Fig.  11). 


FIG.  11. 


Achlamydeous  Flower. 

Achlamydeous  flowers  are  said  to  be  naked. 

After  observing  the  pictures,  and  reading  the  defi- 
nitions of  this  exercise,  you  may  find  upon  the  charts 
all  the  pictures  of  dichlamydeous  flowers ;  of  mono- 
chlamydeous  flowers ;  of  achlamydeous,  or  naked, 
flowers.  Then  look  over  your  living  specimens  again, 
putting  the  dichlamydeous  ones  by  themselves ;  the 
mqnochlamydeous ;  the  achlamydeous.  Pay  no  at- 
tention to  the  doubtful  instances ;  there  will  be  fewer 
and  fewer  of  these  as  your  observations  proceed. 

Dichlamydeous — From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  twice 
and  mantle,  having  two  coverings,  calyx  and  corolla.  Both 
calyx  and  corolla, 

Monochlamydeous — From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  sin- 
gle and  cloalc,  having  a  single  covering;  that  is,  a  calyx  without 
a  corolla,  or  a  corolla  without  a  calyx.  "With  a  single  floral 
envelope. 

Achlamydeous — From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  without 
and  garment.  Naked,  having  no  floral  envelope. 


22  THB   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  V. 
Perfect,  Imperfect,  and  Neutral  Flowers. 

Pictures,  illustrating  this  and  the  following  exer- 
cise, may  be  found  upon  the  charts.  Living  speci- 
mens of  the  kinds  described  will,  perhaps,  but  rarely 
occur  in  the  collections  made  for  study.  It  would  be 
well,  therefore,  to  keep  a  constant  lookout  for  them. 
You  are  likely  to  get  them  in  this  way  before  a  long 
time,  and  a  special  search  might  not  be  successful. 

FIG.  12.  FIG.  13.  FIG.  14. 


A  Perfect  Flower.  Imperfect  Flowers. 

A  PERFECT  FLOWER  has  both  the  essential  organs 
(Fig.  12). 

An  IMPERFECT,  or  DICLINOUS,  flower  has  but  one 
of  the  essential  organs.  If  it  have  stamens  only,  it  is 
said  to  be  staminate  (Fig.  13) ;  if  pistil  only,  it  is  said 
to  be  pistillate  (Fig.  14). 

NEUTRAL  FLOWERS  are  destitute  of  both  stamens 
and  pistil  (Fig.  15). 

When  imperfect  flowers  are  staminate  (Fig.  13), 
they  are  said  to  be  sterile,  because  they  never  produce 
seed.  Sometimes  they  are  spoken  of  as  male  flowers. 


THE   FLOWER.  23 

FIG.  15. 


A  Neutral  Flower. 

When  imperfect  flowers  are  pistillate  (Fig.  14),  they 
are  said  to  be  fertile,  because  they  bear  seed.  They 
are  also  called  female  flowers. 

Perfect  flowers,  like  Fig.  12,  are  said  to  be  her- 
maphrodite, because  both  sexes  are  united  in  the  same 
individual. 

It  will  be  well  firmly  to  associate  the  following 
characters  with  the  kinds  of  flowers  they  represent : 

A  perfect  flower  is  indicated  thus,  £  • 

A  staminate,  sterile,  or  male  flower,  thus,  <$  . 

A  pistillate,  fertile,  or  female  flower,  thus,  ?  . 

Look  over  the  charts  for  examples  of  perfect,  im- 
perfect, and  neutral  flowers. 

Diclinous — From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  twofold  and 
led,  having  the  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flowers. 
2 


24r  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  VI. 
Monoecious,  Dioecious,  and  Polygamous  Plants. 

When  both  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  grow 
upon  the  same  plant  (Fig.  16),  it  is  said  to  be  moncz- 
cious. 

FIG.  16. 


A  Monoecious  Plant 

When  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  grow  upon 
separate  plants  (Figs.  18  and  19),  such  plants  are  said 
to  be  dioecious.  Fig.  17  represents  a  pistillate  flower 
from  the  female  catkin  (Fig.  18).  Fig.  20  represents 
a  staminate  flower  from  the  male  catkin  (Fig.  19). 


THE   FLOWER. 


25 


These  catkins  grow  upon  different  trees ;  so  the  wil- 
low from  which  they  were  taken  is  dioecious. 


FIG.  17. 


FIG.  18. 


Pistillate  Flower,  from 
Catkin  (Fig.  18). 


FIG.  19. 


Female  Catkin  of  a  Dioecious  Plant. 
Fia.  20. 


Male  Catkin  of  a  Dioecious  Plant. 


Staminate 

Flower,  from 

Catkin  (Fig.  19). 


26  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

When  staminate,  pistillate,  and  perfect  flowers 
are  all  found  upon  the  same  plant,  it  is  polygamous. 

Point  out  upon  the  charts  examples  of  monoe- 
cious, dioecious,  and  polygamous  plants. 

Let  the  pupil  answer  the  following  questions  con- 
cerning each  flower  of  his  collection : 

Is  your  flower  symmetrical  or  unsymmetrical  ? 

Is  it  complete  or  incomplete  ? 

Is  it  dichlamydeous,  monochlamydeous,  or  achla- 
mydeous  ? 

Is  it  perfect  or  imperfect  ? 

Did  it  grow  upon  a  monoecious,  dioecious,  or  po- 
lygamous plant  ? 

Monoecious — From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  single  and 
house,  having  the  stamens  and  pistils  in  distinct  flowers,  but 
both  growing  upon  the  same  plant. 

Dioecious — From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  two,  or  double, 
and  house,  having  the  stamens  on  one  plant  and  the  pistil  on 
another. 

Polygamous — From  two  Greek  words,  polus,  many,  and 
gamos,  marriage,  having  both  perfect  and  imperfect,  or  dicli- 
nous, flowers. 


EXERCISE  VII. 

Form  of  the  Receptacle  and  Insertion  of  Floral 
Organs. 

INSERTION. — In  botanical  language,  organs  are  said 
to  be  inserted  at  the  place  from  which  they  apparently 
arise.  For  instance,  in  Fig.  21  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  pistil  is  inserted  upon  the  receptacle,  the  stamens 
are  inserted  upon  the  corolla,  the  corolla  is  inserted 


THE   FLOWER.  27 

upon  the  receptacle,  and  the  calyx  also  is  inserted 
upon  the  receptacle. 

FIG.  21. 


Look  at  the  magnified  flowers  shown  in  section 
on  chart  1,  and  point  out  the  receptacle  in  each  case. 
Are  all  these  receptacles  alike  in  form  ?  State,  in  re- 
gard to  each  flower,  where  the  pistil  is  inserted ;  where 
the  stamens ;  where  the  corolla ;  and  where  the  calyx. 
Which  floral  whorl  in  each  flower  occupies  most  space 
upon  the  receptacle  ?  Are  these  flowers  perfect  ?  Are 
they  complete  ?  Are  they  symmetrical  ? 

Repeat  these  observations  upon  the  magnified 
flowers  shown  in  section  in  chart  2 ;  in  charts  3, 4,  5,  6. 

Make  a  longitudinal  section  of  each  of  your  liv- 
ing flowers,  and  look  for  the  insertion  of  the  floral 
organs.  If  you  sometimes  fail  to  discover  it,  do  not 
be  discouraged.  It  will  not,  of  course,  be  as  clearly 
visible  as  it  is  shown  to  be  on  the  chart.  Try  again 
another  time.  Make  frequent  attempts,  as  failure  is 
often  due  to  lack  of  experience. 


ISO  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  VIII. 
On  Polyandrous  Stamens. 

We  now  take  up  the  study  of  the  flower  at  just 
the  point  where  it  was  left  in  "  The  First  Book  of 
Botany."  While  using  that  book  you  learned  the 
names  of  the  floral  organs,  and  observed  their  num- 
ber. You  also  examined  the  calyx  and  corolla  to 
learn  whether  or  not  their  parts  were  grown  to- 
gether. If  the  sepals  were  not  grown  together,  the 
calyx  was  described  as  polysepalous,  and,  if  they  were 
grown  together,  it  was  said  to  be  gamosepalous.  So, 
also,  when  the  petals  of  the  corolla  were  distinct,  the 
corolla  was  said  to  be  polypetalous,  and,  when  grown 
together,  gamopetalous. 

We  will  proceed  to  an  examination  of  the  essen- 
tial organs  in  this  respect. 

Gather  all  the  flowers  you  can  find,  and  observe 
the  stamens,  to  see  if  they  are  grown  together.  Put 
aside  all  that  have  united  stamens,  whatever  their  de- 
gree of  union. 

Now  inspect  the  flowers  with  distinct  stamens, 
and  put  by  themselves  all  that  have  more  than  twelve. 

A  flower  with  more  than  twelve  distinct  stamens 
is  said  to  have  its  stamens  indefinite. 

They  are  definite  when  there  is  a  fixed  number 
not  above  twelve. 

Separate  those  with  indefinite  stamens,  and  label 
them  polyandrous  (from  poly,  many,  and  andria, 
stamens),  which  means  many  distinct  stamens. 

IsTow  examine  the  flowers  with  definite  stamens, 
and  label  each  one  with  the  name  that,  in  the  follow- 


THE   FLOWER. 


29 


ing  table,  is  placed  opposite  its  number  of  stamens. 
The  Greek  numeral  prefix  denotes  the  number  of 
distinct  stamens : 


Mon-androus — one  stamen. 
Di-androus — two  stamens. 
Tri-androus — three  stamens. 
Tetr-androus — four  stamens. 
Pent-androus — five  stamens. 
Hex-androus — six  stamens. 
Poly-androus- 


Hept-androus — seven  stamens. 
Oct-androus — eight  stamens, 
Enne-androus — nine  stamens. 
Dec-androus — ten  stamens. 
Dodec-androus  —  twelve    sta- 

inens. 
-more  than  twelve. 


Like  the  word  polyandrous,  these  terms  apply 
only  to  distinct  stamens ;  at  the  same  time  they  have 
the  important  advantage  of  giving  the  precise  number. 

But,  if  a  tetrandrous  flower  has  two  stamens  long 
and  two  short  (Fig.  22),  it  is  said  to  be  didynamous, 


Fia.  22. 


Fm.  23. 


Didynamous  Stamens. 


Tetradynamous  Stamens. 


and,  if  an  hexandrous  flower  has  four  stamens  long  and 
two  short  (Fig.  23),  it  is  said  to  be  tetradynamous. 
These  words,  applied  to  the  stamens  of  a  flower, 


30 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


give  at  the  same  time  their  number  T  the  fact  that  they 
are  distinct,  and  the  proportion  of  long  to  short  ones. 
Can  you  find  upon  the  charts  any  flowers  with 
tetradynamous  stamens  ?  Have  any  of  them  didyna- 
mous  stamens  ? 


EXERCISE  IX. 
The  Growing  together  of  Stamens. 

Having  disposed  of  all  your  flowers  with  distinct 
stamens,  next  examine  those  with  united  stamens. 

First  observe  whether  they  have  grown  together 
by  their  filaments,  or  by  their  anthers.  All  those 
having  their  anthers  united,  whether  into  a  tube, 
around  the  pistil,  or  in  any  other  way,  may  be  put 
together  and  labelled  syngenesious  (Figs.  25  and  26). 


FIG.  24, 


FIG.  25. 


Syngenesious  Stamens, 


Syngenesious  Stamens. 


THE  FLOWER. 


31 


Fig.  24  shows  this  tube  laid  open.  Those  that  have 
grown  together  by  their  filaments  have  to  be  further 
studied.  Are  all  the  filaments  grown  together  in 
one  bundle  ?  If  so,  the  stamens  are  monadelphous 
(Fig.  27). 

Are  they  grown  together  in  two  bundles  ?     Then 
they  are  diadelphous  (Fig.  28). 


FIG.  2T. 


Fia.  28. 


Monadelphous  Stamens. 


Diadelphous  Stamens. 


Are  they  in  three  or  more  bundles?  Then  we 
say  they  are  polyadelphous  (Figs.  29  and  30).  In 
Fig.  29  one  bundle  is  cut  away. 


FIG.  29. 


FIG.  30. 


Tri-  or  Polyadelphous. 


Polyadelphous. 


32  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

The  number  and  length  of  the  hard  words  in  this 
exercise  may  embarrass  the  pupils,  but  a  little  use  will 
make  them  familiar,  and  they  will  then  greatly  help 
the  process  of  description. 

Collect  all  the  plants  in  the  neighborhood,  from 
garden,  road-side,  fields,  and  woods,  and  in  describing 
their  stamens  you  will  become  well  acquainted  with 
all  the  necessary  terms. 

Syngenesious  (sun,  Gr.,  together ;  genesis,  origin). 
Monadelphous  (monos,  Gr.,  one ;  adelphos,  brother). 
Diadelphous  (dis,  Gr.,  twice). 
Polyadelphous  (polus,  Gr.,  many). 


EXERCISE  X. 
The  Growing  together  of  Carpels. 

You  have  been  accustomed  to  counting  the  car- 
pels of  flowers,  and  you  are  now  to  find  whether  or 
not  they  are  grown  together. 

All  such  as  are  not  grown  together  at  all  you  may 
label  apocarpous  (Fig.  31). 

FIG.  81. 


Apocarpous  Pistil. 


THE  FLOWER.  33 

Those  that  are  grown  together,  whether  slightly 
at  the  base  of  the  ovary  or  through  the  whole  length 
of  the  pistil,  you  label  syncarpow  (Figs.  32  and  33). 

FIG.  32.  FIG.  33. 


Syncarpous  Pistil.  Syncarpous  Pistil. 

Find  all  the  apocarpous  ovaries  pictured  upon  the 
charts.  All  the  syncarpous  ones. 

Find  also  the  apocarpous  ovaries  in  your  collec- 
tion of  flowers.  The  syncarpous  ones. 

For  this  exercise,  faded  flowers,  and  even  those 
that  have  lost  their  floral  leaves,  will  serve  better 
than  such  as  are  freshly  opened. 

Apocarpous  (apo,  Gr.,  apart ;  karpos,  fruit). 
Syncarpous  (sun,  Gr.,  together ;  Tcarpos,  fruit). 

COHESION. — In  botany  this  word  is  used  for  the 
growing  together  of  parts  with  their  fellows,  as  of 
petals  with  petals,  carpels  with  carpels.  Figs.  38  and 
42  illustrate  this. 

"We  now  resume  the  use  of  the  schedule  in  its  appli- 
cation to  the  examination  and  description  of  flowers. 
The  last  schedule  given  in   "The  First  Book" 


34  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

had  the  word  description  written  over  its  third 
column,  and  under  this  title  could  be  placed  all 
kinds  of  observations.  But,  as  in  this  book  we  enter 
upon  more  careful  and  minute  work,  we  shall  be 
much  aided  in  arranging  our  discoveries  by  adopt- 
ing the  plan  of  Prof.  Henslow,  who  places  the  word 
cohesion  above  this  column,  and  devotes  it  to  obser- 
vations upon  the  cohesion  of  parts  in  flowers. 

Fig.  34  represents  half  a  buttercup.  It  has  been 
sliced  down  through  the  middle,  making  what  is 
called  a  vertical  section  of  the  flower,  that  you  may 
see  the  structure  of  the  stamens  and  pistil.  This 
flower  is  used  for  the  first  schedule  because  of  its 
simplicity,  its  parts  being  all  quite  distinct  from  each 
other.  It  is  without  cohesion,  and,  in  describing  it, 
you  have  to  use  terms  which  apply  to  distinct  sta- 
mens and  carpels. 

The  learner  will,  of  course,  provide  himself  with 
a  real  flower,  and  fill  out  a  schedule  from  his  own  ex- 
amination of  it.  The  buttercup  is  easily  found,  for 
it  grows  almost  everywhere,  and  blossoms  through- 
out the  summer.  I  must  insist  that  the  pupil  be  not 
content  with  simply  looking  over  the  description  in 
the  book.  The  example  is  given,  not  as  a  substitute 
for  your  own  effort,  but  as  a  means  of  testing  your 
observations  ;  of  letting  you  know  whether  your  own 
way  of  carrying  out  the  schedule  description  is  the 
correct  one.  Any  lack  of  confidence  you  may  feel  in 
beginning  a  new  process  will  disappear  upon  find- 
ing that  your  own  observations  and  expressions  agree 
with  the  printed  ones.  A  schedule  or  two  thus  em- 
ployed, when  you  are  beginning  to  use  new  terms, 
will  assist  you  in  gaining  self-reliance. 


THE  FLOWEK, 

FIG.  34. 


35 


Schedule  First,  describing  Fig.  34,  gives  this  ar- 
rangement : 


SCHEDULE  FIRST. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Cal  yx  ? 

Sepals. 

5 

Poly  sepal  ous. 

Corolla  ? 
Petals. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

Stamens  ? 

00 

Polyandrous, 

Pistil? 

Carpels. 

00 

Apocarpous. 

Questions  upon  the  Buttercup  (Fig.  34)  and  Schedule 
First. 

Is  there  cohesion  in  the  calyx  ? 

What  word  in  the  schedule  expresses  this  ? 

Is  there  cohesion  in  the  corolla  ? 

How  is  this  stated  in  the  schedule  ? 

Are  the  stamens  definite  or  indefinite  ? 


36  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

Are  they  grown  to  each  other  ? 

What  word  in  the  schedule  answers  this  question  ? 

Do  the  carpels  cohere  ? 

How  is  this  expressed  ? 

Questions  reviewing  the  Subject  of  Cohesion  in  the 
Parts  of  a  Flower. 

What  is  meant  by  cohesion  in  botany  ? 

How  do  you  describe  a  calyx  with  no  cohesion 
(Fig.  35)?  A  corolla  (Fig.  37)?  Stamens  (Exercise 
VIII.)?  Pistil  (Fig.  41)  ? 

When  the  sepals  are  coherent,  how  do  you  de- 
scribe the  calyx  (Fig.  36)  ?  The  corolla  (Fig.  38)  ? 

FIG.  85.  FIG.  86. 


Polysepalous,  no  Cohesion.  Gamosepalous,  coherent. 

When  stamens  cohere  by  their  anthers,  what  word 
do  you  use  in  describing  them  (Figs.  24,  25,  and  26)  ? 

When,  by  their  filaments  in  one  bundle,  what 
word  is  used  (Fig.  27)  ? 

In  two  bundles  (Fig.  28)  ? 

In  three  or  more  bundles  (Figs.  29  and  30)  ? 

How  do  you  describe  a  coherent  pistil  (Fig.  42)  ? 

There  are  a  few  common  flowers  found  every- 
where in  the  country,  in  which  there  is  no  cohesion ; 
but,  in  most  flowers,  the  parts  of  some  of  the  floral 
circles  will  be  found  more  or  less  united. 


Polypetalous,  no  Cohesion. 
FIG.  39. 


Polyandrous,  Stamens  not  coherent. 
FIG.  41. 


Gainopetalous,  coherent. 
FIG.  40. 


Triadelphous,  Stamens  coherent. 


FIG.  42. 


Apocarpous,  no  Cohesion. 


Syncarpous,  coherent. 


38 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 


Figs.  43,  44,  and  45  represent  the  flower  of  the 
Saint-John's-wort.  Fig.  44  is  a  vertical  section  of 
the  flower,  and  Fig.  45  one  of  the  bundles  of  sta- 
mens. 


FIG.  43. 


FIG  44. 


FIG.  45. 


THE   FLOWER. 


39 


Schedule  Second,  describing  Fig.  44,  is  an  ex- 
ample where  cohesion  of  stamens  and  pistil  is  de- 
scribed. 


SCHEDULE  SECOND. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Calyx? 

Sepals. 

5 

Polysepalous. 

Corolla  ? 
Petals. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

Stamens  ? 

GO 

Tri-  or  Polyadelphous. 

Pistil  ? 
Carpels. 

3 

Syncarpous. 

By  turning  to  page  48  you  will  see  that  another 
column  is  there  added  to  the  schedule.  After  three 
more  exercises,  which  introduce  new  observations  and 
new  terms,  this  addition  becomes  necessary.  Your 
attention  is  called  to  it  now,  to  give  urgency  to  the 
advice  that  you  make  diligent  use  of  the  present 
schedule  in  describing  all  kinds  and  degrees  of  co- 
hesion in  all  sorts  of  flowers.  If  you  do  this,  when 
the  time  comes  to  add  this  third  column,  your  mind 
will  be  free  to  attend  to  the  new  features  that  belong 
to  it.  The  terms  expressing  cohesion  being  familiar, 
there  will  be  no  confusion  of  thought,  and  you  will 
enter  upon  the  new  observations  with  ease  and  pleas- 
ure. 


FIG.  46 


THE   FLOWEK. 
SCHEDULE  THIRD. 


41 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Calyx  ? 
Sepals. 

5 

Polysepalous. 

Corolla? 
Petals. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

Stamens  ? 

10 

Monadelphous. 

Pistil? 
Carpels. 

5 

Syncarpous. 

EXERCISE  XL 

Union  of  Floral  Whorls  with  each  other — Calyx 
and  Pistil. 

In  your  study  of  fruits  ("  First  Book  of  Botany," 
Ex.  LXVII.)  did  you  always  find  the  calyx  at  the 
base  of  the  ovary  ? 

Have  you  ever  seen  upon  the  apex  of  ripened 
fruit  the  withered  calyx,  or  the  scar  left  by  its  fall? 

Point  out  upon  the  charts  all  the  cases  where  the 
calyx  is  below  the  ovary. 

Point  to  those  where  the  calyx  is  above  it. 

Is  the  calyx  in  all  the  pictures  upon  the  chart 
either  at  the  base  or  at  the  apex  of  the  ovary  ? 

For  this  exercise  select  flowers  that  have  their 
parts  so  well  developed  that  you  can  see  distinctly 


42 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


where  each  organ  is  inserted.  Take,  for  example, 
the  morning-glory,  and  observe  whether  the  calyx 
arises  below  the  ovary  or  not.  If  you  find  it  is  in- 
serted below  the  ovary,  label  it  calyx  below,  or  infe- 
rior (Fig.  47),  and  lay  it  aside.  If  the  calyx  is  in- 
serted above  the  ovary,  label  it  calyx  above,  or  supe- 
rior (Fig.  48).  Of  course,  if  the  calyx  is  below  the 


FIG.  47. 


FIG.  48. 


FIG.  49. 


Inferior  Calyx. 
Superior  Ovary. 


Superior  Calyx. 
Inferior  Ovary. 


ovary,  or  inferior,  the  ovary  will  be  above  the  calyx, 
or  superior  /  and,  when  the  calyx  is  superior ',  the 
ovary  will  be  inferior. 

Examine  all  your  flowers  in  the  same  way,  giving 
each  its  proper  label.  If  some  specimens  have  the 
calyx  inserted  neither  at  the  bottom  nor  at  the  top 


THE   FLOWEE.  43 

of  the  ovary,  but  somewhere  along  its  side  (Fig.  50), 
you  describe  these  as  having  the  calyx  half  inferior, 
and  the  ovary  half  superior. 


FIG.  50. 


Calyx,  half  inferior.— Ovary,  half  superior. 


NOTE. — When  the  calyx  seems  to  be  inserted  at  the  top  of 
the  ovary  (Fig.  48),  you  are  to  regard  it  as  really  inserted  on 
the  receptacle,  but  as  having  its  tube  grown  to  the  ovary,  and 
so  appearing  to  be  inserted  at  its  summit.  The  words  superior 
and  inferior  came  into  use  before  the  real  relation  of  the  parts 
was  understood.  The  true  expression  is  "calyx  adherent  to 
ovary,"  in  place  of  calyx  superior;  and  "calyx  free  from 
ovary,"  in  place  of  calyx  inferior.  But  the  words  superior 
and  inferior  are  in  general  use,  and,  being  short,  are  retained 
in  schedule  description. 


EXERCISE   XII. 

The    Union  of  Floral  Whorls  with  each  other.— 
Corolla. 

You  are  now  to  determine  the  insertion  of  the 
corolla. 

Compare  the  arrangement  of  parts  in  each  of  your 
flowers  with  that  shown  in  Fig.  51,  and,  when  you 


44:  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

find  the  corolla  inserted  below  the  ovary,  and  free 
from  the  calyx,  label  the  specimen  corolla,  kypogynous. 


FIG.  51. 


Corolla,  hypogynous  (Gray). 

Examine  the  remainder  of  your  flowers,  and,  when 
you  find  one  with  the  corolla  inserted,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  52,  say  corolla  upon  the  calyx,  or  perigynous. 


FIG.  52. 


Corolla,  perigynous  (Gray). 

How  is  the  corolla  inserted  in  Fig.  53?  Point 
out  upon  the  charts  where  the  corolla  has  a  similar 
insertion. 

Look  at  the  flowers  not  yet  described,  and,  if  you 
find  cases  where  the  corolla  is  inserted  upon  the 
ovary,  describe  them  as  epigynous,  from  epi,  upon, 
and  gynia,  pistil  (Fig.  53). 


THE   FLOWEK.  45 

FTG.  53. 


Corolla,  epigynous. 

If  not  quite  certain  about  these  characters  in  your 
specimens,  write  your  label  with  a  mark  of  interro- 
gation, to  show  doubt.  Do  not  be  discouraged  if 
these  points  of  structure  remain  for  some  time  trouble- 
some ones  to  discover.  Try  to  find  them  out,  and,  if 
you  succeed,  it  is  well ;  but,  if  not,  it  is  well  also. 

As  some  flowers  upon  the  same  plant  are  more 
perfectly  developed  than  others,  you  should  gather 
several  of  each  kind,  and  examine  them  all,  to  find 
the  best  examples  of  the  structure  you  are  studying. 

Look  at  the  flowers  in  chart  1,  .and  observe  in 
each  case  whether  the  corolla  arises  from  the  re- 
ceptacle, and  whether  the  calyx  is  free  from  the 
corolla. 

Find  upon  the  other  charts  all  the  cases  where  the 
corolla  is  inserted  under  the  ovary,  and  is  free  from 
the  calyx. 

Observe  the  flowers  on  chart  2.  Where  is  the 
corolla  inserted  in  these  figures  ?  Can  you  find  upon 
the  other  charts  any  pictures  of  flowers  where  the 
corolla  has  a  similar  insertion  ? 


46  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXEEOISE   XIII. 
Union  of  Floral  Whorls  with  each  other— Stamens. 

If  the  stamens  have  the  same  insertion  as  the 
corolla,  use  the  same  words  to  describe  them.  For 
instance,  in  Fig.  54  the  stamens  are  hypogynous ;  in 
Fig.  55,  perigynous  ;  in  Fig.  56,  epigynous, 

FIG.  54. 


Stamens,  hypogynous. 
FIG.  55.  FIG.  56. 


Stamens,  perigynous.  Stamens,  epigynous. 

When  you  find  them  arising  from  the  corolla,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  57,  they  are  said  to  be  epipetalous. 


THE   FLOWER. 


Sometimes  they  are  consolidated  with  the  pistil, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  58 ;  then  they  are  gynandrous,  or 
upon  the  pistil. 


FIG  57. 


Epipetalous  Stamens. 


Gynandrous  Pistil. 


Examine  all  the  flowers  you  can  find,  and  label 
them  by  the  insertion  of  the  stamens ;  as,  stamens 
un'der  the  ovary,  or  hypogynous ;  stamens  upon  the 
calyx,  or  perigynous /  stamens  upon  the  ovary,  or 
epigynous  ;  stamens  upon  the  corolla,  or  epipetalous ; 
stamens  consolidated  with  the  pistil,  or  gynandrous. 

Adhesion  in  botany  means  the  growing  together 
of  different  floral  whorls,  while  cohesion,  as  you  have 
seen,  means  the  growing  together  of  the  parts  of  the 
same  whorl. 

The  word  free  is  used  to  express  absence  of  ad- 
hesion, and  the  word  distinct,  absence  of  cohesion. 

In  Fig.  59  there  is  neither  cohesion  nor  adhesion. 

FIG.  59. 


Parts,  distinct.— Organs,  free. 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 


Not  only  are  the  sepals  and  petals  distinct  from 
each  other,  not  only  is  each  stamen  and  each  carpel 
distinct,  but  the  whorl  of  sepals  is  inserted  upon  the 
receptacle,  and  is  free  from  the  whorls  within  it. 
The  corolla  is  inserted  upon  the  receptacle,  and  is 
also  free.  The  stamens  and  pistil  are  also  inserted 
upon  the  receptacle,  and  are  likewise  free. 


The  last  column  of  Schedule  Fourth  is  for  the 
record  of  observations  on  adhesion. 


SCHEDULE  FOUBTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Calyx? 

Sepals. 

5 

Polysepalous. 

Inferior. 

Corolla? 
Petals. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

Hypogynous. 

Stamens  ? 

00 

Polyadelphous. 

Hypogynous. 

Pistil? 
Carpels. 

3 

Apocarpous. 

Superior. 

THE   FLOWER.  49 

Questions  upon  the  Buttercup  (Fig.   60)    and    its 

Schedule. 

Is  the  calyx  free  or  adherent  ? 
How  is  this  expressed  in  the  schedule  ? 
Where  is  the  corolla  inserted  ? 
How  is  this  stated  in  the  schedule  ? 
Are  the  stamens  free  or  adherent  ? 
Where  are  they  inserted  ? 
How  is  this  expressed  in  the  schedule  ? 
Is  the  pistil  free  or  adherent  ? 
How  is  this  written  in  the  schedule  ? 

We  have  now  reached  the  complete  schedule  of 
Prof.  Henslow,  which  he  called  the  flower-schedule, 
and  which  was  used  by  his  classes  both  at  Cambridge 
University  and  at  his  parish  school  at  Hitcham.  Corn-- 
plaints have  been  made  that  it  was  difficult.  Pupils 
who  commence  its  use  before  they  fully  understand 
the  features  of  plants  to  which  it  calls  attention,  will, 
no  doubt,  get  confused  when  they  attempt  to  fill  up 
the  blanks  one  after  another,  but  those  who  have  ex- 
amined a  variety  of  flowers,  in  connection  with  the 
foregoing  pages,  will  have  no  such  trouble. 

The  presence  or  absence  of  cohesion  and  adhe- 
sion in  flowers  is  of  great  importance  in  determining 
the  relationships  of  plants,  and  scholars  cannot  do 
better  than  continue  the  use  of  this  schedule  through- 
out the  summer  season,  along  with  the  making  of 
an  herbarium.  Do  not  fail  to  fill  out  schedules  of 
the  following  flowers,  from  your  own  observation. 
Never  write  a  word  of  description  unless  it  be  of 
something  your  own  eyes  have  seen,  and  that  you 
could  point  out  to  any  one  who  might  contradict  you. 


50 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


Be  careful  not  to  copy  statements  from  the  book. 
I  have  known  cases  where  the  book  was  made  wrong 
on  purpose  to  mislead  unwary  and  indolent  scholars. 


FIG.  61. 


Fig.  61  represents  a  flower  of  cow-parsnip.  That 
of  the  carrot,  or  any  umbelliferous  plant,  will  do  as  well. 

We  give  some  further  examples  of  the  use  of  the 
schedule  in  flowers  of  very  unlike  structure. 


SCHEDULE  FIFTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Calyx? 

Sepals. 

5 

Gamosepalous. 

Superior. 

Corolla? 
Petals. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

Epigynous. 

Stamens  ? 

5 

2 

Pentandrous. 

Epigynous. 

Pistil? 
Carpels. 

Syncarpous. 

Inferior. 

THE   FLOWER. 


51 


Fig.  62  shows  a  vertical  section  of  the  flower  of 
daffodil.  It  is  common  enough  in  gardens ;  but,  if 
there  are  pupils  who  can  get  neither  this  flower,  nor 
the  jonquil,  nor  the  snow-drop,  they  can  certainly 
find  a  lily  of  some  kind,  wild  or  cultivated,  and  ob- 
serve the  features  in  which  it  is  unlike  this  picture. 


SCHEDULE  SIXTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Perianth  ? 
Leaves. 

6 

Gamophyllous. 

Superior. 

Stamens  ? 

6 

Hexandrous. 

Perigynous. 

Pistil  ? 
Carpels. 

3 

Syncarpous. 

Inferior. 

52 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


Fig.  63  is  a  blossom  of  wild  geranium.  Figs.  64 
and  65  are  the  stamens  and  pistil  of  the  same.  The 
flower  of  the  garden  geranium  will  serve  in  its  place, 
if  it  can  be  more  easily  obtained.  In  Fig.  70  this 
pistil  is  again  shown. 


FIG.  63. 


FIG.  64. 


FIG.  65. 


SCHEDULE  SEVENTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Calyx  ? 
Sepals. 

5 

Polysepalous. 

Inferior. 

Corolla  ? 
Petals. 

. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

( 

Hypogynous. 

Stamens  ? 

10 

Decandrous. 

Hypogynous. 

Pistil  ? 
Carpels. 

5 

Syncarpous. 

Superior. 

THE   FLOWER. 


53 


EXEKOISE      XIV. 
The  Receptacle. 

The  peculiarities  of  plants  pointed  out  in  this 
and  the  following  exercise  are  not  very  common. 
But  pupils  who  are  using  the  flower-schedule,  and 
collecting  all  the  plants  they  can  find,  will  be  sure  to 
meet  with  examples  of  them  sooner  or  later.  These 
exercises  should,  therefore,  be  carefully  read,  and 
borne  in  mind,  so  that,  when  the  features  they  de- 
scribe are  met  with,  they  may  be  recognized. 

Before  passing  to  the  more  minute  observation  of 
the  floral  organs,  the  receptacle  requires  further  study. 
You  have  seen  it  forming  a  central  convexity,  like 
that  of  Fig.  66,  and  gradually  expanding  into  a 
structure  like  Figs.  67  and  68.  Sometimes  the  re- 

FIG.  66. 


Convex  Receptacle. 


FIG.  6T. 


FIG.  68. 


Receptacle,  enlarged,  and  shown  in  Section. 


The  same,  fully  developed. 


54: 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


ceptacle  is  prolonged  between  the  carpels,  and  co- 
heres with  their  styles,  which  separate  from  it  at 
maturity,  as  seen  in  Figs.  69  and  70  (Gray). 


PIG.  69. 


FIG.  70. 


It  sometimes  appears  as  a  cup-shaped  depression 
(Fig.  71),  in  which  the  pistil  is  almost  concealed,  and 
again  as  shown  in  Fig.  72. 


FIG.  71. 


FIG.  72. 


Cup-shaped  Eeceptacle. 


Elevated  Fleshy  Eeceptacle. 


THE   FLO  WEB. 


55 


Whenever  the  receptacle  becomes  elongated,  so 
that  one  circle  of  floral  organs  is  separated  from 
another  by  a  stalk-like  internode,  the  circle  thus 
raised  is  said  to  be  stipitate,  and  the  stalk  supporting 
it  is  called  a  stipe.  In  Figs.  73  and  74-,  the  stamens, 
pistil,  and  corolla,  are  stipitate,  and  the  stalk  which 
bears  them  is  the  stipe. 


FIG.  73. 


Authophoiv. 


6,  Gonophore ;  o,  Gynopbore, 
Gynobase,  or  Carpophore  (Gray). 


56  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

When  the  stipe  supports  corolla,  stamens,  and 
pistil,  it  is  called  an  aitfhophore  (Fig.  73).  When  it 
supports  only  stamens  and  pistil,  it  is  known  as  the 
gonopJiore  (Fig.  75,  5) ;  the  gynophore^  gynobase,  or 
carpophore,  when  it  bears  the  pistil  alone  (Fig.  75,  c). 

Thalamus — The  receptacle  of  the  flower,  or  the  part  of  the 
peduncle  into  which  the  floral  organs  are  inserted. 
Torus — Another  name  for  thalamus. 
Receptacle  (recipio,  I  receive). 
Thalamus — A  bed. 
Torus — A  couch. 


EXERCISE  XV. 
Appendages  of  the  Receptacle. 

Examine  the  receptacle  in  the  magnified  flowers 
upon  charts  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Carefully  observe  the  space  between  the  calyx  and 
ovary  in  the  figures  opposite.  You  see  a  sort  of  fleshy 
cushion  at  the  base  of  the  ovary  in  one  case,  at  the 
base  of  the  style  in  another.  The  raised  rim  around 
the  pistil  is  called  a  disk.  It  takes  on  very  different 
shapes  in  different  plants.  In  Figs.  76  and  77  it  is 
merely  a  raised  cushion ;  in  Fig.  78  it  is  seen  partly 
enclosing  the  ovary. 

In  Figs.  79  and  80  the  disk  is  seen  surrounding 
the  ovary,  while  in  Figs.  81  and  82  it  is  shown  above 
the  ovary,  and  at  the  base  of  the  style. 


FIG.  76. 


THE  FLOWEK. 
FIG.  77. 


Hypogynous  Disk.         Hypogynous  Disk. 

FIG.  79. 


Fro.  78. 


Hypogynous  Disk. 


Perigynous  Disk. 


Epigynous  Disk.    Epigynous  Disk. 


58 


THE   SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 


The  little  glands  upon  the  receptacle  are  known  as 
nectaries.  They  contain  sweet  fluids,  and  are  found 
among  the  stamens  (Figs.  83  and  84),  or  at  the  base 
of  the  pistil,  forming  a  part  of  the  disk  (Figs.  85,  86, 
and  87). 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


FIG.  85. 


FIG.  86. 


FIG.  87. 


CHAPTER    II. 
COMPARING   AND   CLASSIFYING  PLANTS. 


EXEKCISE  XVI. 
Plant  Characters  and  Affinities. 

You  are  now  to  take  a  step  forward  in  the  study 
of  plants.  Having  acquired  considerable  knowledge 
of  their  parts  by  direct  observation,  you  will  begin 
to  compare  them — to  note  their  resemblances  and 
differences  as  wholes,  and,  by  these  resemblances,  to 


60  THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

arrange,  or  group,  them  in  a  systematic  way.  This 
is  classification. 

You  have  been  doing  something  of  the  kind  ever 
since  you  commenced  observing  plants.  For  in- 
stance, those  with  parallel-veined  leaves  have  been 
classed  by  themselves,  and  those  with  flowers  in  um- 
bels have  been  associated  together,  and  kept  distinct 
from  such  as  blossom  in  heads  or  in  panicles;  but 
your  groupings  have  thus  far  been  made  upon  single 
features  of  plants,  as  was  inevitable  in  the  beginning 
of  study.  You  are  now  prepared  to  gi-asp  at  once  in 
thought  more  parts  of  structure,  and  make  your  com- 
parisons more  full  and  complete. 

If,  for  example,  you  have  put  into  one  group  all 
square-stemmed  plants,  simply  because  they  have 
square  stems,  it  is  time  to  consider  whether  these 
plants  are  alike  in  other  features.  "  Oh,  yes,"  some 
of  you  will  say,  "  they  have  opposite  leaves."  Well, 
look  at  their  inflorescence ;  do  they  all  agree  in  that  ? 
Is  it  always  axillary  ?  Are  the  flowers  similar  in  all 
the  square-stemmed  plants  you  know  ?  When  you 
have  answered  these  questions,  you  will  understand 
what  I  mean  by  studying  plants  as  wholes. 

And  now,  how  shall  you  set  to  work  ? 

First,  provide  yourself  with  the  following  plants : 
The  buttercup  (which  is  found  almost  everywhere), 
the  wild-columbine,  and  the  poppy.  If  the  columbine 
is  not  to  be  found,  get  monk's-hood,  or  larkspur,  or 
anemone,  and  proceed  with  them  in  the  way  pointed 
out  for  the  columbine.  If  the  poppy  cannot  be 
found,  you  might  substitute  blood-root,  or  celandine. 
Having  got  the  plants,  proceed  according  to  the  plan 
laid  down,  and  do  not  accept  the  statements  or  con- 


COMPARING   AND   CLASSIFYING   PLANTS.  61 

elusions  of  the  book,  unless,  on  comparing  them  with 
your  own  plants,  you  see  that  they  are  true. 

There  are  two  botanical  expressions,  of  which,  at 
the  outset,  you  should  learn  the  meaning.  One  of 
these  is  the  characters  of  plants,  and  the  other  the 
affinities  of  plants.  And,  first,  what  is  meant  by 
plant-characters  f 

If  you  will  describe  a  buttercup,  I  think  we  can 
easily  find  just  what  is  meant. 

You  say,  "  CALYX,  sepals,  5,  polysepalous,  inferior ; 
COROLLA,  petals,  5,  polypetalous,  hypogynous;  STA- 
MENS, many,  hypogynous ;  PISTIL,  carpels,  many,  apo- 
carpous, superior."  Yes;  but  what  about  the  rest 
of  the  plant?  You  answer:  "It  has  simple,  exstipu- 
late,  alternate,  divided  leaves;  petiole  spreading  at 
base ;  stem,  erect ;  flowers,  in  a  loose  cluster ;  juice, 
watery,  acrid. 

Now,  this  is  the  description  of  a  particular  but- 
tercup, and  yet  it  applies  to  all  buttercups.  Are  all 
buttercups,  therefore,  exactly  alike?  By  no  means. 
They  differ  in  size,  shape,  thriftiness,  number  of 
blossoms,  etc. ;  but,  in  our  botanical  description,  we 
do  not  record  these  individual  peculiarities. 

"Well,  the  points  of  form  and  structure  in  which 
all  buttercups  agree,  that  is,  their  permanent  feat- 
ures, are  called  by  botanists  the  characters  of  the 
buttercup.  All  such  unchanging  features  of  plants 
are  plant-characters.  A  plant  is  simply  an  assem- 
blage of  characters,  and  the  description  of  a  plant  is 
but  a  list  of  its  characters. 

Now,  it  is  by  comparing  groups  of  characters  that 
we  reach  the  idea  of  affinities.  If,  as  we  have  seen, 
each  plant  bears  a  fixed  group  of  characters,  the  re- 


62  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

semblance  of  one  plant  to  another  is  only  the  resem- 
blance of  one  group  of  characters  to  another.  Let 
us  make  such  a  comparison  between  the  buttercup 
and  columbine. 

Do  not  rely  upon  the  descriptions  in  the  book, 
but  make  similar  tables  yourself. 


BUTTERCUP.—  Flower. 

Calyx. — Sepals,  5,  polysepa- 
lous,  inferior. 

Corolla. — Petals,  5,  polypeta- 
lous,  hypogynous,  obcordate, 
yellow. 

Stamens. —  o>,  hypogynous. 

Pistil. — Carpels,  o>,  apocar- 
pous, superior. 


COLUMBINE. — Flower. 

Calyx. — Sepals,  5,  polysepa- 
lous,  inferior,  colored  like 
the  petals. 

Corolla. — Petals,  5,  polypeta  - 
lous,  hypogynous,  spurred, 
red. 

Stamens. —  oo,  hypogynous. 

Pistil.— Carpels,  5,  apocar- 
pous, superior. 


Comparing  the  above  lists,  you  see  agreements 
and  differences.  The  calyx  and  corolla  of  one  plant 
agree  with  those  of  the  other  in  number  of  parts  and 
in  the  position  of  parts.  They  differ  only  in  color 
and  outline.  The  stamens  of  one  are  like  those  of  the 
other  in  being  numerous  and  hypogynous.  The  pis- 
tils agree  in  structure,  but  differ  in  the  number  of 
carpels.  If  you  compare  the  leaves,  stems,  inflores- 
cence, etc.,  you  also  get  a  list  of  their  resemblances 
and  differences.  This  is  comparing  plants  by  the 
groups  of  characters  they  present. 

These  resemblances  of  character  among  plants  are 
called  their  affinities. 

The  degree  of  affinity  between  plants  depends 
upon  two  circumstances:  first,  upon  tho  kind  of 


COMPARING   AND   CLASSIFYING    PLANTS. 


63 


characters  in  which  they  agree;  and,  second,  upon 
the  number  of  characters  in  which  they  agree. 

The  characters  of  plants  differ  in  importance. 
Such  kinds  of  character  as  color,  size,  and  odor, 
being  usually  more  variable  than  such  kinds  as 
position,  size,  and  number,  they  are  said  to  be  less 
important  than  these.  The  characters  of  the  leaf, 
for  the  same  reason,  are  not  usually  as  important  as 
the  characters  of  the  flower.  In  the  beginning  of 
study,  you  may  safely  assume  that  those  plants  are 
most  alike,  have  the  strongest  affinities,  that  re- 
semble each  other  most  in  the  characters  recorded  in 
the  cohesion  and  adhesion  columns  of  the  schedule. 

To  make  this  plainer,  compare  the  poppy  and 
buttercup,  as,  before^  you  compared  the  columbine 
and  buttercup. 


BUTTERCUP. 

Calyx. — Sepals,    5, 
lous,  inferior. 

Corolla.— Petals,  5,  polypeta- 
lous,  hypogynous. 

Stamens. — Polyandrous,  hypo- 
gynous. 

Pistil. — Carpels,   many,    apo- 
carpous, superior. 

Leaves. — Net- veined,  divided. 

Juice. — Watery. 


POPPY. 

Calyx. — Sepals,  2,  polysepa- 
lous,  inferior. 

Corolla. — Petals,  4,  polypeta- 
lous,  hypogynous. 

Stamens. — Polyandrous,  hypo- 
gynous. 

Pistil. —  Carpels,  many,  syn- 
carpous,  superior. 

Leaves. — N"et-veined,  divided. 

Juice. — Milky. 


To  find  which  has  the  strongest  affinity  for  the 
buttercup,  the  columbine,  or  the  poppy,  all  that  is 
necessary,  at  present,  is,  to  ascertain  which  of  them 
is  nearest  like  the  buttercup  in  respect  to  cohesion 
and  adhesion  of  the  parts  of  the  flower. 


64  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

On  examination,  you  see  that  the  columbine,  like 
the  buttercup,  is  perfectly  destitute  of  cohesion,  while 
in  the  poppy  you  have  a  coherent,  or  syncarpous, 
pistil.  This  settles  the  question.  The  affinity  of  the 
columbine  for  the  buttercup  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  poppy. 

If  you  compare  their  leaves,  you  will  find  those 
of  the  poppy  more  like  buttercup-leaves  than  are 
those  of  the  columbine,  but  differences  in  leaf-struct- 
ure do  not  usually  signify  as  much  in  classification 
as  differences  in  the  pistil. 

Compare,  in  the  same  way,  the  hollyhock  and  the 
Saint- John's- wort  with  mallows,  and  decide  which  has 
the  strongest  affinity  for  the  mallows. 

Compare  the  flower  of  the  locust  and  of  the  gera- 
nium with  that  of  the  pea  or  bean. 

I  mention  these  plants,  not  because  they  are  use- 
ful above  all  others  for  your  purpose,  but  to  start  you 
in  the  work.  It  really  matters  little  what  plants  you 
take,  if  you  only  carefully  compare  the  group  of 
characters  of  each  one  with  that  of  the  others,  and 
endeavor  to  discover  the  affinities  they  present. 


EXERCISE  XVII. 
Sow  to  begin  Classification. 

If  you  have  made  the  comparisons  pointed  out  in 
Ex.  XVL,  you  are  prepared  for  an  explanation  of  the 
plan  by  which  you  are  to  begin  to  classify  plants.  As 


COMPARING  AND   CLASSIFYING   PLANTS.  65 

we  made  use  of  the  buttercup  and  columbine  to  learn 
the  meaning  of  affinity  in  botany,  a  little  further 
statement  about  them  will,  perhaps,  be  helpful  be- 
fore we  pass  to  the  regular  work  of  the  exercise. 

The  buttercup  is  said  to  be  more  thrifty,  more  at 
home  in  low,  damp  places.  It  is  like  frogs  in  this 
respect ;  and,  because  of  this,  it  is  named  after  them. 
Its  botanical  name  is  Ranunculus,  from  Eana,  a  frog. 
The  Kanunculus  has  certain  characters  with  which  you 
are  familiar.  Now,  when  you  find  other  plants  which 
are  very  much  like  it,  that  is,  which  present  nearly  the 
same  group  of  characters,  particularly  those  of  cohe- 
sion and  adhesion,  you  class  them  with  it,  you  say 
they  belong  with  the  buttercup ;  or,  in  more  botani- 
cal language,  they  belong  to  the  Kanunculacese.  In 
some  regions  this  plant,  from  the  form  of  its  leaf,  is 
called  the  Crowfoot,  and  plants  closely  resembling  it 
are  said,  therefore,  to  belong  to  the  Crowfoot  family. 
Now,  the  resemblance  of  the  columbine  to  the  butter- 
cup entitles  it  to  belong  to  the  Ranunculacese.  The 
monk's-hood  and  larkspur  also  belong  to  the  same 
family,  and  this  will  give  you  some  idea  of  the  degree 
of  similarity  that  should  exist  between  members  of 
one  family. 

Our  object  in  the  present  exercise  is,  to  fix  upon 
a  method  by  which  to  begin  the  work  of  classifying 
plants,  by  comparing  the  groups  of  characters  they 
present,  and  putting  together  those  that  are  most 
alike. 

Get  a  pocket  note-book.  Write  in  it,  boldly  and 
plainly,  the  flower-schedules  of  the  following  plants : 
Buttercup,  shepherd' s-purse,  mustard  or  radish,  catch- 


66  THE    SECOND   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

fly,  mallows,  Saint- John's- wort,  clover,  pea  or  bean, 
wild-rose,  strawberry,  geranium,  violet,  morning- 
glory. 

Now,  why  have  we  put  these  particular  schedules 
into  the  note-book  ?  Compare  them  with  each  other. 
Do  you  not  see  that  the  statements  in  the  cohesion 
and  adhesion  columns  are  widely  unlike?  This  is 
why  we  have  chosen  them.  They  are  so  many  dif- 
ferent patterns  of  the  make-up  of  flowers,  and  you 
have  simply  to  compare  each  flower  you  describe  with 
one  and  another  of  these  patterns,  to  see  which  is  the 
best  fit.  If  none  of  them  fit  at  all,  then  set  up  your 
new  acquaintance  as  another  pattern,  and  see  if  you 
can  find  any  of  its  relations  in  the  course  of  the  sum- 
mer. So,  do  not  confine  yourself  to  comparisons  be- 
tween your  specimens  and  the  patterns  in  your  note- 
book. Compare  them  freely  with  each  other,  and 
you  will  soon  have  many  little  collections  of  plants 
bearing  very  strong  resemblances  to  each  other. 

Your  thought  will  be  something  like  this  :  While 
you  are  observing  and  describing  a  plant,  you  will 
ask  yourself,  "  Have  I  ever  before  described  one  like  it 
in  the  matters  of  cohesion  and  adhesion  I "  If  you 
can  think  of  none,  you  will  try  to  recall  those  near- 
est like  it.  By  pursuing  this  plan,  you  will  be  sur- 
prised to  find  how  quickly  many  of  the  plants  of  a 
region,  that  were  never  before  thought  of  as  at  all 
alike,  fall  into  company  on  the  ground  of  these  deeper 
resemblances  which  your  studies  have  led  you  to  dis- 
cover. 

The  reason  why  you  are  set  systematically  to  clas- 
sifying plants  now,  and  have  not  been  asked  to  do  it 
before,  is,  that  among  the  characters  of  plants  that 


COMPARING   AND   CLASSIFYING   PLANTS.  67 

belong  to  roots,  leaves,  stems,  etc.,  there  are  none 
that  are  so  uniform  throughout  large  numbers  of  dif- 
ferent plants  as  these  features  of  cohesion  and  adhe- 
sion in  flowers.  Since  you  began  to  observe  plants, 
you  have  not  been  taught  to  notice  any  points  of 
structure  that  would  serve  so  well  for  uniting  plants 
into  groups,  the  members  of  which  are  truly  and 
somewhat  nearly  related  to  each  other. 

But  the  grounds  on  which  you  are  to  begin  to 
classify  plants,  although  important,  and,  in  many 
cases,  quite  sufficient,  are  not  the  only  ones  on  which 
classification  is  based.  Though  they  may  sometimes 
be  found  too  narrow,  yet  you  must  begin  somewhere, 
and,  to  make  your  beginning  as  free  as  possible  from 
complexities,  you  start  with  the  features  named  in  the 
flower-schedule.  In  working  with  this,  much  of  your 
experience  will  be  clear  and  satisfactory,  but  you  may 
meet  with  difficulties.  By-and-by,  however,  the  sub- 
ject will  be  resumed,  and,  if  you  have  sometimes  been 
confused  and  puzzled  in  classifying  by  the  flower- 
schedule  alone,  new  ideas  will  be  all  the  more  wel- 
come. 

Students  who  have  the  botanical  charts  will  find 
them  very  helpful  in  the  work  of  classification.  Upon 
these  charts  there  are  pictured  in  the  colors  of  Nature 
some  forty  pattern-plants,  magnified,  and  shown  in 
section,  so  that  their  structure  is  easily  seen.  These 
plants  have  been  selected  because  the  differences  they 
present  are  just  those  broad  contrasts  that  separate 
groups  of  plants  in  Nature.  At  this  stage  of  your 
study,  while  your  thoughts  are  confined  to  the  feat- 
ures of  the  flower-schedule^  the  first,  second,  third, 
and  fifth  charts  present  pattern-plants  of  all  varieties 


68  .      THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

in  these  respects.  Their  great  value  to  the  pupil,  in 
classification,  at  the  beginning  of  study,  lies  in  the 
distinctness  of  the  idea  he  gets  from  them  as  to  how 
his  pattern-plant  is  constructed. 

The  work  of  classification  being  now  entered  upon, 
it  will  be  resumed,  from  time  to  time,  with  further 
explanations  as  we  proceed,  particularly  when  we 
come  to  study  such  groups  of  plants  as  the  grains  and 
grasses,  the  cone-bearing  plants,  the  Composite,  fa- 
miliarly known  as  compound  flowers,  the  Umbel- 
liferae,  etc.  These  striking  natural  orders  will  intro- 
duce us  to  new  principles  in  judging  of  affinities,  and 
pupils  who  are  specially  fond  of  this  part  of  the  study, 
and  are  apt  in  tracing  resemblances,  will  do  well  to 
look  over  the  chapters  upon  these  plants  without 
waiting  to  reach  them  in  the  course  of  regular  study. 

NOTE. — There  is  often,  among  both  teachers  and  pupils,  an 
aversion  to  skipping  about.  The  idea  of  thoroughness  with 
them  seems  to  imply  moving  steadily  on  from  page  to  page  of 
a  book,  without  ever  deviating  from  its  order.  But  in  such  a 
science  as  botany  it  is  not  necessary  to  proceed  in  this  way. 
The  subject  cannot  be  marked  off  sharply  into  parts  that 
must  be  learned  in  a  certain  order.  Of  course,  plant  characters 
must  be  known  before  they  can  be  used  in  classification ;  but, 
when  a  few  are  known,  they  may  be  at  once  put  to  service.  A 
pupil  cannot  do  better  than  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  group 
of  cruciferous  plants  as  soon  as  the  special  characters  that  be- 
long to  this  group  are  familiar.  Any  group  of  plants  may  be 
classified  as  soon  as  the  characters  upon  which  it  is  founded  are 
fairly  known.  To  get  a  knowledge  of  classification  requires 
much  time,  and  its  study  should,  therefore,  be  commenced  at 
the  earliest  possible  moment. 

There  is  another  reason  for  skipping  about,  which  will  be 
at  once  appreciated.  It  is  this:  Plants  have  their  time  to 
flower,  and  their  flowers  must  be  studied  at  that  time.  For 


CHAPTEE    III. 
THE  STAMENS. 

EXEKCISE  XVIII. 
Parts    of   Stamens, 

COMMENCE  this  exercise  by  examining  the  parts 
of  a  well-formed  stamen.  Select,  for  this  purpose,  a 
flower  with  stamens  having  large  anthers.  If  they 
have  not  yet  shed  their  pollen,  all  the  better.  Com- 
pare this  anther  with  Fig.  88,  and  look  for  the  parts 
pointed  out  in  the  picture. 

FIG.  88. 

\ — — .  Connective. 

J Anther  Lobe,  or  Cell. 

Anther  Lobe. 


example:  the  Conifer®  blossom  in  spring,  and  spring  is  the 
time  to  study  them.  Stamens  may  be  found  throughout  the 
entire  season,  and  so  may  be  studied  at  any  time.  It  would  be 
folly,  therefore,  to  let  the  period  pass  in  which  the  Conifers 
might  be  studied,  because  you  u  hadn't  come  to  them  "  in  the 
book,  and  pursue  the  study  of  stamens  because  they  are  next 
in  order.  Again,  the  characters  of  orchids  are  illustrated  by  a 
plant  which  has  its  season,  and  the  time  to  study  orchids  is 
when  this  plant  makes  its  appearance. 


70          THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

Do  you  see  in  your  specimen  a  groove  down  the 
middle  of  the  anther  on  one  of  its  sides  ?  Is  there 
any  thing  like  a  ridge  on  the  other  side  of  the  an- 
ther, opposite  the  groove  ? 

Can  you  divide  the  anther  at  this  place  without 
coming  upon  the  pollen  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  this  part  of  the  anther  in 
Fig.  88  ?  What  are  the  two  halves  it  connects  called  ? 

Look  at  your  living  anther  for  the  line  along  each 
lobe,  called  the  line  of  dehiscence  in  the  figure. 

What  name  is  given  in  Fig.  89  to  the  sides  of  the 
anther-cells  ?  (Of  course,  each  lobe  has  two  valves ; 
but,  as  they  are  opposite,  only  one  can  be  shown  in 
a  picture.) 

ANTHER-LOBE. — The  cell  which  holds  the  pollen 
(Fig.  88). 

CONNECTIVE. — A  continuation  of  the  filament 
which  unites  the  two  lobes  of  the  anther.  It  is 
often  inconspicuous  or  absent,  but  is  sometimes  easi- 
ly seen  (Fig.  88). 

VALVES. — The  sides  of  an  anther-lobe. 

LINE,  OR  POINT,  OF  DEHISCENCE. — The  opening 
through  which  the  pollen  escapes. 

It  may  help  the  learner  in  forming  a  distinct  idea 
of  these  different  parts  of  the  anther,  to  know  that 
the  stamen  is  looked  upon  by  botanists  as  a  sort  of 
leaf,  the  filament  answering  to  the  petiole,  and  the 
anther  to  the  blade.  The  connective  corresponds  to 
the  mid -rib  of  a  leaf,  and  the  line  of  dehiscence  to 
its  margin,  each  lobe  being  half  of  a  leaf-blade,  and 


THE    STAMENS. 


71 


the  valves  of  an  anther  corresponding  to  the  upper 
and  under  sides  of  a  leaf. 

Examine  the  anthers  of  as  many  different  flowers 
as  possible,  and  try  to  find  the  cells,  connective,  line 
of  dehiscence,  valves. 

Do  not  be  disappointed  or  discouraged  if,  in  many 
cases,  you  fail  to  distinguish  some  of  the  parts. 

Look  at  the  magnified  stamens  on  the  charts,  and 
find,  if  you  can,  the  parts  of  the  anther  named  in 
this  exercise. 


EXEEOISE  XIX. 
Number  and  Shape  of  Anther- Lobes. 

NUMBER   OF   ANTHEB-LOBES. 
FIG.  90.  FHJ.  91.  FIG.  92. 


One-celled  Anther.          Two-celled  Anther. 
4 


Four-celled  Anther. 


72 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


FIG.  93. 


SHAPE   OF   ANTHEE-LOBE8. 
FIG.  94. 


FIG.  95. 


Arrow-shaped  Anther.  Oblong  Anthers. 

FIG.  96. 


Emarginate  Anthers. 


Sinuous  Anthers. 


EMARGINATE. — When  the  summit,  or  base,  of  the 
anther-cell  extends  upward  or  downward,  a  little  be- 
yond the  connective  (Fig.  96). 

Label  each  flower  of  your  collection  with  the 
number  and  shape  of  the  anther-cells  of  its  stamens. 


THE   STAMENS. 


Y3 


Find,  if  you  can,  upon  the  charts  instances  of  one- 
celled  anthers,  of  two-celled  anthers,  of  four-celled 
anthers.  Mention  the  form  of  each  anther-lobe  pict- 
ured upon  the  charts. 


EXERCISE  XX. 
Dehiscence  of  the  Anther. 


FIG.  98. 


FIG.  99. 


FIG. 101. 


FIG.  102. 


FIG.  103. 


Vertical,  or 
Longitudinal. 


Transverse. 


Porous. 


Valvular. 


Valvular. 


VERTICAL,  OR  LONGITUDINAL  DEHISCENCE. — When 
the  anther  opens  by  a  slit  along  its  length  to  emit 
the  pollen  (Fig.  98). 

TRANSVERSE. — When  the  line  of  dehiscence  is 
across  the  anther  (Fig.  99). 

POROUS. — When  the  anthers  emit  the  pollen 
through  little  pores  (Fig.  101). 

VALVULAR. — When  a  portion  of  the  anther  is 
lifted  up  to  emit  the  pollen  (Figs.  102  and  103). 


74:  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

In  describing  the  stamens  of  flowers  you  will  now 
observe  the  kind  of  dehiscence  the  anther  exhibits. 

Name  the  various  modes  of  dehiscence  of  anther- 
cells  shown  upon  the  charts. 


EXERCISE  XXI. 
Introrse  and  Extrorse  Anthers. 

When  the  valves  of  the  anther  are  of  equal  size, 
the  dehiscence  will  occur  laterally  (Fig.  106) ;  but,  if 
one  valve  be  wider  than  the  other,  it  will  throw  the 
line  of  dehiscence  nearer  to  the  connective  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other.  The  narrowed  valves  are 
usually  on  the  projecting  side  of  the  anther-cell,  and 
this  is  called  the  face  of  the  anther  (Fig.  104). 

FIG.  104.  FIG.  105. 


Face.  Back. 

The  other  side,  where  the  connective  is  usually 
visible,  if  seen  at  all,  and  where  the  filament  is  at- 
tached in  most  cases,  is  called  the  l)ack  of  the  anther 
(Fig.  105). 

NOTE. — The  projecting  side  of  the  anther-cell  is  called  its 
face,  and  the  opposite  side  is  called  its  ~back,  whether  the  valves 
are  unequal  or  not. 


THE   STAMENS. 


75 


FIG.  106. 


FACING  THE  PISTIL. 
FIG.  107. 


Lateral  Dehiscence. 


Introrse  Anthers. 


Anthers  are  INTKOKSE  when  the  line  of  dehiscence, 
or  face,  of  the  anther,  is  toward  the  pistil. 


FACING  THE  COROLLA. 


FIG.  108. 


FIG.  109. 


Extrorse  Anthers. 


Extrorse  Anthers. 


Anthers  are  EXTKOKSE  when  the  line  of  dehis- 
cence, or  face  of  the  anther,  is  turned  toward  the 
corolla  (Figs.  108  and  109). 


76  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

Look  over  the  charts  for  examples  of  extrorse  and 
introrse  anthers.  In  future  observe  the  stamens  of 
living^  flowers  with  reference  to  this  feature. 


EXERCISE  XXII. 
Attachment  of  Filament  to  Anther. 

FIG.  111.  FIG.  112. 


Innate.  Innate. 

INNATE. — Anthers  are  innate,  or  fosifi&ed,  when 
the  filament  runs  directly  into  the  base  of  the  con- 
nective (Figs.  Ill,  112,  and  116). 

ADNATE. — Anthers  are  adnate,  or  dorsifixed,  when 
the  filament  runs  up  the  back  of  the  anther,  joining 
the  connective  in  such  a  way  that  the  anther  is  hung 
in  front  of  it  (Figs.  113  and  114). 

VERSATILE. — If  the  filament  is  attached  by  a  slen- 
der apex  to  the  middle  of  the  anther,  the  ends  of 
which  swing  freely  up  and  down,  the  attachment  is 
said  to  be  versatile  (Fig.  115). 


FIG.  113. 


THE   STAMENS. 
Fra.  114. 


FIG.  115. 


Adnate. 
FIG.  116. 


Basifixed. 


Dorsifixed. 


'      v- 
Apsffixed. 


The  modes  of  attachment,  pictured  and  named 
above,  shade  into  each  other,  so  that,  in  practice,  it 
is  often  difficult  to  determine  them.  The  versatile 
passes  into  the  adnate,  and  the  adnate  into  the  in- 
nate, and  a  nice  exercise  of  judgment  is  sometimes 
needed  in  describing  this  feature  of  flowers. 

Find  these  several  modes  of  attachment  on  the 
charts.  Determine  and  describe  the  mode  of  attach- 
ment in  each  of  your  living  specimens. 


78 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXIII. 
Forms  of  Filaments. 


FIG.  122; 


FIG.  123. 


FIG.  124. 


Filiform. 


Sub-ulate. 


Capillary. 


FILIFORM  filaments  are  thread-like,  as  the  name  de- 
notes, but  strong  enough  to  support  the  anther  (Fig. 
122). 

SUB-TIL  ATE  filaments  taper  like  an  awl  (Fig.  123). 

CAPILLARY  filaments  are  hair-like,  and  too  slender 
to  support  the  anther  (Fig.  124). 

DILATED  filaments  are  flattened  out  like  Fig.  126. 

PETALOID  filaments  resemble  petals  in  form,  and 
bear  the  anther  at  the  summit,  as  seen  in  Figs.  127 
and  128. 

BI-DENTATE,  or  Bi-cuspiD,  filaments  are  toothed  at 
the  summit  or  at  the  base,  as  seen  in  Figs.  129  and  130. 

Find  examples  of  the  several  kinds  of  filaments 
upon  the  charts.  Describe  the  different  forms  of 
filaments  in  your  collection  of  plants. 


FIG.  125. 


THE   STAMENS. 
FIG.  126.    FIG.  127.         Fro.  128. 


79 


FIG.  129. 


Dilated. 


Petaloid. 


Bi-dentate. 


Bi-dentate. 


EXERCISE  XXIV. 
Structure  and  Forms  of  Pollen. 

The  pollen-grain  is  generally  composed  of  two 
membranes,  or  coats,  filled  with  a  thick  liquid  sub- 
stance containing  minute  grains,  which  is  its  essential 
portion.  The  outer  coat  is  frequently  marked  with 
bands,  lines,  and  grooves,  or  covered  with  bristling 
points  (Fig.  131).  The  inner  coat  is  very  thin,  and 
swells  when  wetted.  If  you  moisten  pollen-grains? 
you  may  often  see,  with  a  microscope,  the  expanded 
inner  coat  protruding  through  openings  in  the  outer 
coat  (Fig.  131). 

EXTTNE. — The  outer  coat  of  a  pollen-grain,  usually 
with  openings,  or  very  thin  in  certain  places  (Figs. 
131, 132,  and  133). 

INTINE. — The  inner  coat  of  a  pollen -grain,  very 


80 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


thin,  tough,  and  elastic,  often  seen  protruding  through 
holes  in  the  extine  (Figs.  132  and  133). 

FOVILLA. — The  rich  protoplasmic  liquid  contained 
within  the  intine  (Fig.  133). 


FIG.  181. 


FIG.  132. 


FIG.  182*. 


FIG.  183. 


FIG.  134. 


Intine. 


Fovilla. 


Extine. 


Polinia. 


POLINIA. — Pollen-grains  cohering  in  masses.  In 
Fig.  134  they  are  in  pairs,  and  are  furnished  with 
stalk-like  processes ;  but  in  some  plants  they  are  sin- 
gle, and  without  a  stalk. 


FIG.  185. 


FIG.  136. 


THE   STAMENS. 


81 


Pollen-grains  display  a  great  variety  of  shapes. 
Besides  the  round  and  oblong  (Figs.  135  and  136), 
you  will  find  them  angular,  lobed,  and  joined  to- 
gether in  various  ways  (compound  pollen)  by  threes, 
fours,  and  even  larger  numbers  (Fig.  132). 

Look  at  the  various  forms  of  pollen  pictured  upon 
the  charts. 

Examine  the  pollen  of  flowers  with  your  magni- 
fying-glass,  and  note  the  shape  of  the  grains,  and  the 
kind  of  surface  they  present.  Observe  the  moistened 
pollen  of  various  plants  under  the  microscope. 


EXERCISE  XXV. 
Forms  of  Connective. 


FIG.  187.     FIG.  138. 


FIG.  139, 


FIG,  140. 


FIG.  141. 


Appendicular. 


Connective,  widened. 


82  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  142. 
Anther. 


Connective. 

Abortive  Anther '^_^ 

Filament 


Dimidiate. 

APPENDKKJLAR. — When  the  connective,  extending 
above  or  below  the  anther,  takes  the  form  of  a  feather, 
or  a  lengthened  point,  or  a  fleshy  mass,  or  spur-like 
appendages,  or  stipules  (Figs.  137,  138,  and  140). 

When  one  lobe  of  an  anther  is  abortive,  or  sup- 
pressed, the  anther  is  said  to  be  dimidiate.  Fig.  142 
represents  a  dimidiate  anther  and  a  connective  de- 
veloped into  arms,  so  that  the  lobes  are  entirely  dis- 
connected. 

Observe  the  abortive  anther-lobe  of  Fig.  142. 
The  entire  stamen,  as  well  as  each  of  its  parts,  is 
liable  to  suppression,  abortion,  or  imperfect  develop- 
ment. The  symmetry  of  flowers  is  often  'destroyed 
in  this  way.  In  some  plants  the  non-development 
of  organs  that  exist  in  the  rudimentary  state  is  a 
constant  character,  and  should  be  regarded  in  de- 
scribing them. 

Observe  the  figures  on  the  chart  which  illustrate 
these  forms  of  connective.  Look  over  the  flowers  of 
your  collections,  and  in  future  describe  the  form  of 
connective  when  you  can  distinguish  it. 


THE   STAMENS. 

EXERCISE  XXYI. 
General  Features  of  Stamens* 


83 


FIG.  143. 


FIG.  144. 


EXSEETED. — Stamens  are  said  to  be  exserted  when 
they  extend  beyond  the  corolla  (Fig.  143). 

INCLUDED. — When  the  stamens  are  not  as  long  as 
the  corolla,  they  are  said  to  be  included  (Fig.  144). 

The  entire  whorl  of  stamens  is  called  the  androe- 
cium. 

When  the  filament  is  wanting,  the  anther  is  de- 
scribed as  sessile. 

When  the  anther  is  wanting,  the  stamen  is  said 
to  be  sterile. 

Converging  stamens  are  said  to  be  connivant. 


84  THE   SECOND   BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

In  observing  and  describing  stamens,  the  follow- 
ing schedule  will  be  found  useful  by  calling  attention 
to  the  several  characters  pointed  out  in  the  present 
chapter : 

Stamen  Schedule. 

Parts  ? 

Number  of  anther-lobes  ? 

Shape  of  anther-lobes  ? 

Attachment  of  filament  and  anther? 

Facing  ? 

Form  of  filament  ? 

Form  of  pollen  ? 

Form  of  connective  ? 

General  features  ? 

Adnate  (Lat.,  adnascor,  I  grow  to) — Grown  fast  to,  or  formed 
in  union  with,  another  body. 

Appendicular  (Lat.,  appendo,  I  hang  up) — Having  an  ap- 
pendage. 

Basifixed  (Lat.,  basis,  the  base)— Attached  by  the  base. 

Dimidiate  (Lat.,  dimidiatus,  halved) — Appearing  as  if  one 
half  were  wanting. 

Dorsifixed  (Lat.,  dorsum,  the  back)— Fixed  upon  the  back. 

Extrorse (Lat.,  extra,  externally;  orsus,  originating) — Turned 
outward. 

FomlloB  (Lat.,  foveo,  I  nourish)— Minute  particles  in  the 
fluid  contained  in  pollen. 

Innate  (Lat.,  innatus,  inbred) — Borne  directly  on  the  apex 
of  a  thing. 

Intine  (Lat.,  internus,  internal) — The  inner  lining  of  pollen- 
grains. 

Introrse  (Lat.,  introrsus,  inwardly) — Turned  toward  the  axis. 

Subulate  (Lat.,  subula,  an  awl) — Awl-shaped. 

Versatile  (Lat.,  versatilis,  that  turns  easily) — Swinging  to 
and  fro.  •  * 


CHAPTEE    IY. 
THE  PISTIL. 


FIG.  144. 


EXERCISE  XXVII. 
Kinds   of  Stigma 

FIG.  145.  FIG.  146. 


FIG.  147. 


Scrolled. 


Globose. 


Lobed. 


86  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   XXVIII. 
Form  and  Position  of  Styles. 

FIG.  155.  FIG.  156.  FIG.  157.  FIG.  158. 


Sigmoid.  Lateral.  Basal.  Terminal 

The  shapes  of  styles  may  be  named  by  the  same 
words  as  the  shapes  of  filaments. 

Observe,  in  faded  flowers  and  young  fruit,  whether 
the  styles  are  persistent  or  deciduous. 


EXERCISE  XXIX. 
Kinds    of   Pistil. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  apply  the  following  names 
to  certain  distinctions  among  pistils  with  which  pupils 
are  now  familiar : 

FIG.  159. 


A  Compound  Pistil. 


A  COMPOUND  PISTIL  (Fig.  159)  consists  of  several 
united  carpels — is  syncarpous. 


FIG.  160. 


THE   PISTIL. 
FIG.  161. 


87 


FIG.  162. 


A  Simple  Pistil. 


Multiple  Pistil. 


Multiple  Pistil. 


A  SIMPLE  PISTIL  (Fig.  160)  consists  of  only  a  sin- 
gle carpel,  and  is,  of  course,  apocarpous. 

A  MULTIPLE  PISTIL  (Figs.  161  and  162)  consists  of 
several  distinct  carpels — is  also  apocarpous. 


EXERCISE  XXX. 
The  Structure  of  Ovaries. 

"Whether  a  pistil  is  simple,  multiple,  or  compound, 
each  carpel  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  single  leaf. 
The  simple  pistil  of  the  pea,  for  instance,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  blade  of  a  leaf  folded  at  the  midrib, 
so  that  its  inner  portion  answers  to  the  upper  face  of 
a  leaf,  and  its  outer  portion  to  the  under  face.  Its 
dorsal  suture  will  correspond  to  the  midrib,  and  its 
ventral  suture  to  the  margin  of  the  leaf. 

To  make  this  plainer,  take  any  strong  oblong  leaf 
(Fig.  163),  and  fashion  it  into  a  carpel,  like  the  pea- 
pod,  taking  the  upper  part  of  the  leaf  for  the  inner 


88 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


part  of  the  carpel.  Fold  in  the  margins  slightly  to 
represent  the  placentae  (Fig.  164).  (See  "  First  Book," 
Ex.  LXVIII.)  If  the  fold  will  not  stay  in  place,  take 
a  stitch  or  two  along  it  with  a  needle  and  thread.  Now 
double  it  at  the  midrib  (Fig.  165),  and  compare  it 
with  a  pea-pod.  Find  the  valves;  the  dorsal  and 
ventral  portions ;  the  stigma  ;  the  base. 


FIG.  164. 


FIG.  165. 


Gather  some  old,  faded  pea-blossoms,  in  which 
the  ovary  is  somewhat  enlarged,  and  observe  that  the 
ventral  suture  is  turned  inward ;  that  is,  it  lies  along 
the  central  line,  or  axis,  of  the  flower.  It  is  along 
this  axis,  then,  that  the  double  placentae  are  formed. 
Observe  the  position  of  the  dorsal  suture,  or  back  of 
the  pod.  It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that,  in  the 
case  of  the  simple  pistil,  the  ovules  are  attached  cen- 
trally along  the  axis  of  the  flower. 


THE    PISTIL.  89 

Roughly  to  imitate  a  multiple  pistil,  you  have 
only  to  bind  together,  by  their  petioles,  several  leaf- 
blades  that  have  been  converted  into  carpels,  as 
above.  Observe  the  placentation  of  any  multiple 
pistil,  and  you  will  invariably  find  that  the  placenta 
of  each  carpel  is  central  in  the  same  way  that,  in  the 
artificial  one,  you  have  made  the  margins  of  your 
carpellary  leaves  turn  inward,  and  the  midribs  out- 
ward. 

After  thus  preparing  simple  and  multiple  pistils 
from  foliage  leaves,  let  us  try  to  construct  a  com- 
pound pistil  from  leaf-blades.  If  we  can  do  this,  it 
will  give  us  a  clear  understanding  of  the  structure  of 
syncarpous  ovaries. 

Form,  from  foliage  leaves,  an  artificial  ovary,  of 
three  coherent  carpels.  A  three-celled  compound 
pistil  consists  of  three  carpellary  leaves  grown  to- 
gether. It  is  as  if,  by  pressing  together  the  carpels 
of  your  multiple  pistil,  they  should  unite  by  their 
sides.  To  make  an  artificial  compound  pistil,  then, 
you  have  only  to  select  three  large  symmetrical  foli- 
age leaves,  and  pin  or  stitch  them  together  in  such 
a  way  that  their  margins  will  meet  in  the  centre,  and 
their  under  surfaces  will  form  its  outer  wall.  If  you 
cannot  get  leaves  of  firm  texture  that  will  hold  a  pin 
or  stitch  without  tearing,  try  lining  them  with  some 
thin  cloth  or  paper.  Fold  each  of  the  leaves  at  the 
midrib,  with  the  upper  surface  inward,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
166.  Fasten  the  left  half  of  one  leaf-blade'  to  the 
right  half  of  another,  so  that  the  united  portions 
will  form  a  double  wall  between  the  cells,  and  the 
six  edges  will  meet  together  at  the  centre,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  167. 


90 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


Your  aim  being  simply  to  understand  how,  and 
from  what,  each  part  of  a  compound  pistil  is  formed, 
you  need  not  care  for  the  clumsiness  or  shapelessness 
of  your  manufactured  ovary. 

Point  out  its  cells.  Its  dissepiments.  Explain 
why  they  are  double.  Point  out  the  dorsal  and  ven- 
tral suture  of  each  carpel  of  your  syncarpous  struct- 
ure. Where  should  you  look  for  ovules  in  this 
pistil  ? 


Fio.  166. 


FIG.  167. 


FIG.  168. 


Prepare  a  compound  ovary  by  joining  three  leaves 
at  their  margins,  as  seen  in  Fig.  168.  In  what  part 
of  an  ovary  so  formed  are  the  leaf-margins?  In 
what  part  of  the  ovary  would  you  look  for  the 
ovules  ?  The  theory  of  the  pistil  is  important,  because 
it  gives  clear  ideas  of  the  varied  and  complex  charac- 
ters of  ovaries ;  and  these  characters  are  of  the  first 
importance  in  classification. 


THE   PISTIL. 


91 


EXERCISE  XXXI. 
Placentation. 

After  studying  the  structure  of  ovaries  as  ex- 
plained in  Ex.  XXX.,  the  following  definitions  will 
be  easily  understood : 

PLACENTATION. — The  arrangement  of  placentae  is 
called  placentation. 

To  determine  the  mode  of  placentation  of  a  plant, 
slice  its  ovary  across,  and  compare  its  appearance  with 
the  following  figures.  The  formation  and  arrange- 
ment of  placentae  are  so  various,  that  we  have  given 
an  unusual  number  of  drawings  to  illustrate  the  defi- 
nitions. 

AXILLARY  PLACENTATION. — When  the  ovules  are 
found  along  the  central  line,  or  axis  of  the  pistil,  the 
placentation  is  called  axillary r,  or  axile  (Figs.  169, 170, 
ITl,  172,  and  173). 


Fio.  169. 


FIG.  170. 


FIG.  171. 


FIG.  172. 


FIG.  173. 


92 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


FKEE-CENTKAL  PLACENTATION. — "When  the  dissepi- 
ments, or  double  partitions,  between  the  cells  are  ab- 
sent, leaving  the  placentae  and  ovules  at  the  centre, 
and  all  the  cells  opening  into  one  chamber,  the  pla- 
centation  is  said  to  be  free-central  (Figs.  174,  175, 
176,  and  177). 


FIG.  174. 


FIG.  175. 


FIG.  176. 


FIG.  177. 


PARIETAL  PLACENTATION  is  seen  when  the  placen- 
tae are  attached  to  the  walls,  or  projections  from  the 
walls,  of  the  ovary,  as  is  illustrated  in  the  following 
figures  (178-185) : 


THE    PISTIL.  93 

FIG.  178.  FIG.  179.  FIG.  180.  FIG.  181. 


FIG.  182.  FIG.  183.  FIG.  184. 


FIG.  185. 


FALSE  DISSEPIMENTS. — It  will  be  well  to  know 
that,  in  many  ovaries,  there  are  partitions  not  formed 
in  the  way  described  in  Ex.  XXX.  The  following  are 
instances  of  what  are  known  as  false  dissepiments : 


FIG.  186. 


FIG.  187. 


Observe  in  Fig.  186  a  partition  going  inward  from 
the  dorsal  suture,  and  nearly  reaching  the  centre  of 
the  flower. 

Fig.  1ST  shows  a  similar  false  partition  not  quite 
so  much  extended. 


94:  THE   SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

FIG.  188.  FIG.  189.  FIG.  190. 

V. 


Fig.  188  is  a  section  across  the  middle  of  an 
ovary,  and  Fig.  189  is  a  section  across  the  upper  part 
of  the  same  ovary.  The  partitions  that  appear  in  one 
and  are  not  seen  in  the  other,  must  be  false — they 
cannot  be  formed  by  the  sides  of  adjacent  carpels. 

In  Fig.  190  the  placentae  are  parietal,  but  a  mem- 
brane is  formed,  reaching  across  the  ovary,  and  form- 
ing a  false  dissepiment.  These  false  dissepiments, 
you  see,  are  developed,  in  some  cases,  from  the  dorsal 
suture ;  in  others,  from  the  placentae. 

It  may  sometimes  be  difficult  to  decide  between 
true  and  false  dissepiments ;  but,  as  your  knowledge 
of  plants  increases,  the  different  members  of  the  same 
group  will  often  be  found  to  afford  transitional  char- 
acters that  make  evident  what  otherwise  would  be 
uncertain. 


EXERCISE  XXXH. 
Modes  of  Dehiscence. 

To  understand  the  modes  of  dehiscence,  pictured 
in  this  exercise,  you  have  only  to  prepare  a  three- 
celled  compound  ovary,  as  directed  in  Ex.  XXX., 


THE   PISTIL. 


95 


observing  the  place  of  the  dorsal  and  ventral  sutures, 
the  relations  of  the  valves,  and  that  the  partitions  are 
double. 

REGULAR  OR  VALVULAR  DEHISCENCE. — Dehiscence 
is  said  to  be  valvular  when  the  ovary  separates  into 
the  regular  pieces  called  valves. 


FIG.  191. 


FIG.  192. 


FIG.  193. 


The  dehiscence  is  SEPTICIDAL  when  the  ovary  splits 
through  the  partitions,  each  dissepiment  separating 
into  its  two  layers,  one  belonging  to  each  carpel 
(Figs.  191,  192,  and  193). 


FIG.  194. 


FIG.  195. 


The  dehiscence  is  LOCULICIDAL  when  the  splitting 
opens  into  the  cells  by  the  dorsal  suture,  as  seen  in 

Fig.  195,  which  represents  the  ovary  of  a  violet,  where 
5 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF    BOTANY. 


the  carpels  flatten  out  as  soon  as  they  are  released 
from  each  other. 


FIG.  196. 


FIG.  197. 


FIG.  198. 


Septifragal. 

The  dehiscence  is  SEPTIFEAGAL  where  the  valves 
fall  away,  leaving  the  dissepiments  behind  attached 
to  the  axis  (Figs.  196  and  197). 

IRREGULAR  DEHISCENCE. — Seeds  are  sometimes  dis- 
charged through  chinks,  or  pores  (porous  dehiscence) 
(Fig.  198),  or  the  ovary  may  burst  in  some  part  irregu-. 
larly. 

Now  compare  the  capsules  in  your  collection  with 
the  figures  and  definitions  given  in  this  exercise,  and 
determine,  if  you  can,  the  mode  of  dehiscence  of  each 
of  them. 

How  would  you  produce  loculicidal  dehiscence  in 
the  compound  ovary  you  have  made  with  leaves,  as 
directed  in  the  opening  of  this  exercise  ? 

How  septicidal  ?     How  septifragal  ? 


THE   PISTIL.  97 

EXERCISE    XXXIII. 
Direction  of  Ovules  and  Seeds. 

Ovules  have  an  horizontal  direction  when  they  are 
neither  turned  upward  nor  downward,  as  in  Figs. 
199  and  200.  They  are  ascending  when  rising  ob- 
liquely upward,  as  in  Fig.  201. 


FIG.  199. 


FIG.  200. 


FIG.  201. 


Ovules  are  said  to  be  erect  when  rising  upright 
from  the  base  of  the  cell  (Fig.  202).  They  are  sus- 
pended when  hanging  perpendicularly  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  cell  (Fig.  203).  They  are  pendulous  when 
hanging  from  near  the  top  (Fig.  204). 


FIG.  202. 


FIG.  203. 


FIG.  204. 


98 


THE   SECOND   BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXXIV. 
Parts    of   the    Ovule. 


FIG.  205. 


Primine. 


Apex  of  Ovule. 
Secundine. 


Base  of  Ovule - 


BASE  or  OVULE. — The  point  of  union  of  the  fti- 
niculus  and  ovule ;  not  of  the  funiculus  and  placenta 
(Fig.  205). 

APEX. — The  part  of  the  ovule  opposite  the  base 
(Fig.  205). 

PRIMINE. — The  outer  sac  of  an  ovule  (Fig.  205). 

SECUNDINE. — The  inner  sac  of  an  ovule  (Fig.  205). 

These  parts  are  again  shown  in  Figs.  206  and  207, 
along  with  others  that  appear  when  we  make  a  section 
of  the  ovule. 

FIG.  206. 
Apex  of  Ovule.  Micropyle. 


Base  of  Nucleus. 

Bhaphe.  -- 


\  Chalaza. 


THE    PISTIL.  99 

FIG.  207. 

Chalaza. 


Base  of  Nucleus. 


Primine ...   _ 

— --Rhaphe 

,-.  ,.  r-»      \     »     \        ••••:•!         **.-:*    f-vr.vT  J.W«.M.^/AA^« 

Secundme 

Nucleus.-- --N 


MICROPYLE. — The  opening  in  the  coats  of  an  ovule, 
or  seed  (Figs.  206  and  207). 

NUCLEUS. — The  substance  contained  within  the 
sacs,  in  which  the  embryo  is  formed  (Figs.  206  and 
207). 

RHAPHE. — The  connection  between  the  base  of  the 
nucleus  and  the  base  of  the  ovule.  In  Fig.  206  the 
rhaphe  is  short,  and  concealed  within  the  ovule,  but 
in  Fig.  207,  where  the  position  of  the  nucleus  is  so 
changed  as  to  bring  its  base  round  to  the  apex  of  the 
ovule,  the  rhaphe  is  visible,  and  extends  along  one 
side,  still  connecting  the  base  of  the  nucleus  with  the 
base  of  the  ovule. 

CHALAZA. — The  place  where  the  coats  and  nucleus 
grow  together. 

HILUM. — The  scar  left  by  the  separation  of  a  seed 
from  its  placenta. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  pupils  will  find  all  these 
parts  of  the  ovule  in  plants.  Some  of  them  are  usu- 
ally discernible,  and  they  may  all  be  understood  in 
their  proper  relations  by  studying  the  diagrams. 


100  THE   SECOND   BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXXV. 
Kinds    of    Ovule. 

FIG.  208.  FIG.  209. 

Micropyle. — 


Straight,  or  Orthotropous.  Curved,  or  Campy lotropous. 

The  STRAIGHT,  or  ORTHOTROPOUS  OVULE,  has  the 
base  of  the  nucleus  and  the  base  of  the  ovule  in  the 
same  position,  while  the  micropyle  is  at  the  apex 
(Fig.  208). 

In  the  CURVED,  or  CAMPYLOTROPOUS  OVULE,  the 
micropyle,  or  apex,  is  bent  over  close  to  the  base 
(Fig.  209). 

FIG.  210.  FIG.  211. 


Rhaphe.--    f        m  jf  J|_ Micropyle. 


Chalaza \1K__._  Micropyle.  /      ^Jf~"  -  Chalaza. 

Ehaphe.'' 
Inverted,  or  Anatropous.  Half-inverted,  or  Amphitropous. 


In  the  INVERTED,  or  ANATROPOUS  OVULE,  the  fu- 
niculus  lengthens,  and  bends  round,  growing  fast  to 
the  coat,  until  the  base  of  the  nucleus  is  at  the  apex 
of  the  ovule  (Fig.  210). 

In  the  HALF-INVERTED,  or  AMPHITROPOUS  OVULE, 
the  funiculus  only  lengthens  till  the  ovule  turns  a 
quarter  of  the  way  over,  as  in  Fig.  211. 


THE   PISTIL,      "w     '  101 


(The  pupil  is  referred  to  page  118,'  the  close  of 
the  chapter  on  fruit,  for  a  list  of  questions — a  sort  of 
pistil-schedule — to  be  used  as  a  guide  in  describing 
this  organ.) 

Amphitropal  (Gr.,  amphi,  about ;  trepo,  I  turn). 

Anatropal  (Gr.,  ana,  over ;  trepo,  I  turn) — An  ovule  turned 
over,  so  as  to  bring  the  micropyle  to  the  hilum. 

Axile  (Lat.,  axis,  an  axle-tree) — Belonging  to  the  centre,  or 
axis. 

Campylotropal  (Gr.,  campulus,  curved;  trepo,  I  turn) — An 
ovule,  or  seed,  bent  so  as  to  bring  the  apex  near  to  the  hilum. 

CJialaza  (Gr.,  a  spot  on  the  skin) — The  place  in  a  seed  where 
the  nucleus  joins  the  integuments. 

Dehiscence  (Lat.,  dehisco,  I  gape) — Splitting  into  parts. 

Dissepiment  (Lat.,  dissepio,  I  separate) — Partitions  in  a  fruit. 

Hilum  (Lat.,  the  black  scar  of  a  bean) — The  scar  left  by  the 
separation  of  a  seed  from  its  placenta. 

Loculicidal  (Lat.,  loculus,  a  cell)— A  mode  of  dehiscence 
through  the  back  of  a  carpel. 

Micropyle  (Gr.,  mikros,  small;  pule,  gate) — The  scar  in  the 
skin  of  a  seed,  which  was  the  foramen  in  the  ovule. 

Nucleus  (Lat.,  a  kernel) — The  centre  of  an  ovule,  where  the 
embryo  is  formed. 

Ortliotropal  (Gr.,  ortlios,  straight;  trepo,  I  turn) — An  erect 
ovule,  with  the  foramen  or  micropyle  opposite  the  hilum. 

Parietal  (Lat.,  paries,  a  wall) — Growing  to  the  walls  of  an 
ovary. 

Placentation  (Lat.,  placenta,  a  cheese-cake) — The  way  the 
placentae  are  developed. 

Primine  (Lat.,  primus,  first). 

RJiapJie  (Gr.,  rhapJie,  a  seam)— The  thread  connecting  the 
placenta  and  nucleus. 

Seeundine  (Lat.,  secundus,  second). 

Septicidal  (Lat.,  septum,  a  hedge;  ccedo,  I  cut) — A  mode  of 
dehiscence  dividing  the  dissepiment. 

Septifragal  (Lat.,  septum,  a  hedge;  frango,  I  break) — A 
mode  of  dehiscence  where  the  valves  fall  away  from  the  dis- 
sepiment. 


CHAPTEE    Y. 
THE   FRUIT   AND   SEED. 

EXEKCISE  XXXYT. 
The    Composition    of  Fruit. 

FRUIT. — The  ripened  ovary,  witli  its  contents,  is 
the  fruit  of  plants.  Whatever  adheres  to  the  ovary 
also  becomes  part  of  the  fruit. 

In  studying  fruit,  observe  with  care  what  parts, 
besides  the  pistil,  have  been  concerned  in  its  forma- 
tion. In  describing  flowers,  you  note  whether  the 
pistil  is  inferior  or  superior ;  is  there  any  reason  to 
suppose  that  inferior  fruit  would  be  most  likely  to 
have  other  parts  of  the  flower  besides  the  pistil  united 
with  it  ?  Did  you  observe  the  flowers  of  the  cherry, 
plum,  or  peach  trees,  and  those  of  apple  and  pear 
trees  when  they  were  in  blossom  ?  and  if  so,  will  you 
compare  your  recollection  of  them  with  the  appear- 
ances presented  by  their  fruit  ?  If  you  have  forgot- 
ten their  structure,  perhaps  you  have  kept  a  descrip- 
tion of  them,  and  can  refresh  your  memory. 

Observe  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  cherry.  Look  at 
the  top  of  the  peduncle  for  scars  left  by  the  parts  of 
the  fallen  flower.  Look  for  a  dot  at  the  top  of  the 
fruit,  showing  the  place  of  the  style.  Has  any  thing 
but  the  pistil  entered  into  the  formation  of  this  fruit  ? 
Observe  the  plum,  peach,  grape,  currant,  etc.,  and  see 
if  they  are  like  the  cherry  in  these  respects. 


THE  FKTJIT   AND   SEED.  103 

Now  examine  an  apple  or  pear.  What  do  you 
find  at  the  top  of  the  fruit,  opposite  the  peduncle  ? 
It  must  be  the  remains  of  the  calyx-limb,  the  tube  of 
which  you  saw  united  to  the  pistil  when  you  studied 
it  in  flowering-time.  Of  what,  then,  does  the  fruit 
consist?  Divide  an  apple  or  pear,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
212.  Find  the  parts  shown  in  this  diagram.  The  re- 


M 


mains  of  the  flower  are  seen  at  C.  The  calyx-tube, 
grown  fleshy  and  succulent,  is  marked  T.  The  outer 
border  of  the  ovary  is  seen  at  E.  From  what  part 
of  the  flower  is  the  eatable  portion  of  a  pear  or  apple 
developed?  To  repeat  our  former  question,  would 
the  fruit  of  a  superior  pistil  be  more  likely  than  that 
of  an  inferior  pistil  to  consist  of  the  ovary  alone  ? 

I  have  illustrated  the  composition  of  fruit  with 
apples  and  cherries  because  they  are  so  common ;  but 
these  observations  may,  and  should  be,  repeated  upon 
every  variety  of  fruit  that  can  be  found. 

Trace  the  formation  of  each  of  the  fruits  pictured 
upon  the  charts,  and  point  out  those  that  consist  of 
the  pistil  alone,  and  those  which  do  not.  In  the  lat- 
ter case,  name  the  parts  that  are  consolidated  with 
the  pistil  in  the  fruit. 


104:  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

When  fruit  is  formed  from  the  pistil  alone,  the 
wall  of  the  ovary  is  called  a  pericarp  (from  peri, 
around). 

Gather  specimens  of  every  kind  of  fruit  that 
grows  within  reach.  In  late  summer  or  early  au- 
tumn, the  fruit  of  garden,  field,  and  forest,  if  care- 
fully collected,  will  give  you  a  large  and  various  as- 
sortment. For  example :  you  may  have  at  the  same 
time  cucumbers,  melons,  beans,  peas,  grapes,  apples, 
pears,  elder  and  pokeweed  berries,  chestnuts,  wal- 
nuts, pumpkins,  etc.,  and  the  less  conspicuous  seed- 
vessels  of  mullein,  Saint- John's- wort,  lettuce,  radish, 
cabbage,  etc.,  etc.  Earlier  in  the  season  the  list  will 
be  different,  and  it  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  lo- 
cality, but,  wherever  collected,  and  whatever  its  com- 
ponents, be  sure  to  gather  every  kind  that  can  be  had. 

Look  over  your  collection,  and  separate  the  supe- 
rior from  the  inferior  fruits.  Observe  the  structure 
of  those  formed  from  inferior  pistils,  and  point  out 
the  pericarp  in  those  formed  from  superior  pistils. 

Preserve,  for  further  study,  the  specimens  you 
have  gathered. 


EXERCISE  XXXVII. 
Farts  of  the  Pericarp. 

EPICARP. — When  the  walls  of  a  pericarp  are  formed 
of  two  or  more  layers  of  different  texture,  as  in  the 
peach,  plum,  or  cherry,  the  outer  one  (the  skin,  in 
the  case  of  these  fruits)  is  called  the  epicarp. 

ENDOCARP. — The  stony  case  around  the  seed  of  the 


THE  FRUIT  AND  SEED.  105 

peach,  plum,  or  cherry,  is  called  the  endocarp.  But 
the  endocarp  of  fruits  is  not  always  stony.  "Whatever 
its  texture,  the  inner  layer  of  a  pericarp  is  named  the 
endocarp. 

MESOCAKP. — Sometimes,  between  the  outer  and 
inner  parts  of  a  pericarp,  there  is  found  a  third  layer 
of  different  aspect,  like  the  pulp  of  a  peach.  This 
third  layer  is  called  the  mesocarp.  The  distinction 
between  the  epicarp  and  mesocarp  is  often  very  slight, 
and  then  both  together  are  called  the  epicarp. 


FIG.  213. 


In  Fig.  213  e  is  the  endocarp,  s  the  mesocarp,  and 
g  the  epicarp. 

In  Fig.  212  E  is  the  epicarp,  N  the  endocarp,  and 
S  the  seeds.  At  N  is  shown  a  slight  development  of 
the  mesocarp.  Point  out  these  parts  in  an  apple  and 
a  peach.  Point  out  the  parts  of  the  pericarp  in  the 
different  fruits  pictured  upon  the  charts. 

Classify  your  collection  of  fruits  by  the  structure 
of  the  pericarp.  Put  by  themselves  all  those  that 
have  but  one  layer  in  the  pericarp.  Put  those  with 
two  layers — an  epicarp  and  endocarp — by  themselves, 
leaving  those  with  three  layers — epicarp,  mesocarp, 
and  endocarp.  Describe  the  layers  that  make  up  the 
fruit ;  that  is,  say  whether,  in  each  case,  the  layer  is 
pulpy,  woody,  stony,  membranous,  leathery,  etc. 


106  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

Preserve  your  collection  for  further  study,  and 
add  to  it  all  you  can  get. 


EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 
The  Classification  of  Fruit. 

Look  over  your  collection  and  separate  the  dehis- 
cent from  the  indehiscent  fruits.  The  indehiscent 
group  may  now  be  further  separated  into  juicy  fruits 
and  dry  fruits.  Compare  your  specimens  of  juicy 
fruit,  one  by  one,  with  the  following  pictures  and 
definitions  of  fruits.  The  first  picture  is  that  of  a 
berry ;  so  you  may  first  find  the  berries  of  your  col- 
lection. To  determine  whether  a  particular  fruit  is  a 
berry  or  not,  cut  it  across,  and  see  if  it  agrees  in 
structure  with  Fig.  214,  and  the  requirements  of  the 
definition.  Never  mind  whether  your  conclusion  ac- 
cords with  common  speech  or  not ;  whether  a  straw- 
berry turns  out  to  be  a  berry  or  not ;  but  follow  the 
definition  wherever  it  leads. 

Indehiscent  Juicy  Fruits. 

BEEET. — A  thin-skinned,  indehiscent,  fleshy  fruit, 
having  the  seeds  embedded  in  the  pulpy  mass  (Figs. 
214  and  215). 

FIG.  214.  FIG.  215. 


THE  FRUIT  AND  SEED. 


107 


HESPERIDIUM. — A  kind  of  berry  with  a  leathery 
rind  (Fig.  216).     (Example,  lemon  and  orange.) 


FIG.  216. 


PEPO. — The  pepo  is  an  indehiscent,  fleshy  fruit, 
with  seeds  borne  on  parietal  placentae,  and  with  the 
epicarp  more  or  less  thickened  and  hardened.  (Ex- 
ample, squash.) 

POME  is  the  term  applied  to  a  fleshy,  indehiscent, 
several-celled  fruit,  with  a  leathery,  or  cartilaginous, 
endocarp,  enclosed  by  the  calyx-tube.  Figs.  217  and 
218  are  transverse  and  vertical  sections  of  a  pome. 
(Example;  apple  and  pear.) 


FIG.  217. 


FIG.  218. 


DRUPE  (example,  peach  or  cherry)  is  a  pulpy,  in- 
dehiscent,  one-celled,  one  or  two  seeded  fruit,  with 
a  succulent  or  fibrous  epicarp,  and  hard,  stony,  dis- 
tinct endocarp  (Figs.  219  and  220). 


108  THE   SECOND  BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  219.  FIG.  220. 


If  you  have  blackberries,  raspberries,  and  the  like, 
among  your  fruits,  compare  one  of  the  little  cells  that 
make  up  this  kind  of  fruit  with  this  definition  of  a 
drupe. 

Indehiscent  Dry  Fruits. 

Select  from  among  your  dry  indehiscent  fruits  all 
those  that  resemble  Figs.  221,  222,  223,  and  224,  and 
that  are  usually  miscalled  seeds.  You  will  find  upon 
many  of  them  such  appendages  as  hairs,  teeth,  plumes, 
bristles,  etc. 


FIG.  221. 


FIG. 


Vertical  Section  of 
Carpel  of  Buttercup. 


THE   FRUIT   AND   SEED. 


109 


FIG.  223. 


FIG.  224. 


They  are  achenia.  An  ACHENIUM  is  a  dry,  inde- 
hiscent,  one-seeded  fruit,  with  a  separable  pericarp, 
tipped  with  the  remains  of  the  style  (Figs.  222-224). 

UTRICLE. — By  this  term  is  understood  a  kind  of 
achenium,  with  a  thin,  bladdery  pericarp  which  is 
sometimes  dehiscent. 


FIG.  225. 


FIG.  226. 


CARYOPSIS. — A  dry,  indehiscent,  one-celled,  one- 
seeded  fruit,  with  the  pericarp  adherent  to  the  seed, 
as  seen  in  wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize,  etc.  (Fig.  226). 

CREMOCARP. — Pendant  achenia.     (See  Ex.  LII). 

CYPSELA.  —  Still   another  variety  of   achenium, 


110  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

with  an  adherent  calyx-tube,  as  in  composite  (Fig. 

222). 

FIG.  227.  FIG.  228. 


Nwr. — A  hard,  one-celled,  one-seeded,  indehiscent 
fruit,  produced  from  a  several-celled  ovary,  in  which 
the  cells  have  been  obliterated,  and  all  but  one  of 
the  ovules  have  disappeared  during  growth.  It  is 
often  enclosed  in  an  involucre,  called  a  cupule  (Fig. 
227),  or  it  has  bracts  at  the  base. 

SAMARA,  or  KEY-FRUIT  (example,  the  elm). — A 
dry,  indehiscent  fruit,  growing  single  or  in  pairs,  with 
a  winged  apex,  or  margin  (Fig.  228). 

Dehiscent  Fruits. 

Any  dry,  dehiscent  fruit,  whether  simple  or  com- 
pound, may  properly  be  called  a  pod. 

FOLLICLE. — A  pod  of  a  single  carpel,  with  no  ap- 
parent dorsal  suture,  and  dehiscing  by  the  ventral 
suture.  You  will  seldom  find  an  ovary  consisting  of 
but  one  follicle ;  but  it  is  a  common  kind  of  carpel  in 
multiple  pistils.  Observe  the  ripe  ovary  of  colum- 


THE   FKDTT   AND    SEED. 


Ill 


bine  or  pseonia.  Each  carpel  is  a  follicle,  and  you 
may  find  them  slightly  coherent  at  the  base,  as  if 
forming  a  transition  between  the  apocarpous  and 
syncarpous  pistil. 

LEGUME. — A  pod  of  a  single  carpel,  with  dorsal 
and  ventral  sutures  and  dehiscing  by  both  or  either, 
as  the  pea  and  bean  pod.  It  assumes  many  different 
forms. 

One  of  these,  the  LOMENT,  is  a  sort  of  legume  with 
transverse  joints  between  the  seeds,  and  falling  to 
pieces  at  these  joints  (Fig.  229). 

Another  variety,  the  SILIQTJE,  is  a  two-valved, 
slender  pod,  with  a  false  dissepiment,  from  which 
the  valves  separate  in  dehiscence.  It  has  two  parie- 
tal placentae  (Fig.  230). 


FIG.  229. 


FIG.  230. 


FIG.  231. 


FIG.  232. 


SILICLE. — A  short,  broad  silique  (Fig.  231). 
PYXIS.— A  pod  which  dehisces  by  the  falling  off 
of  a  sort  of  lid  (Fig.  232). 


112 


THE    SECOND   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 


CAPSULE. — The  pod  of  a  compound  pistil ;  the  dry, 
dehiscent  fruit  of  syncarpous  pistils  (Figs.  233  and 
234).  The  pieces  into  which  a  capsule  falls  at  dehis- 
cence  are  called  valves,  the  same  as  in  one-carpelled 
fruit. 


Fia.  233. 


FIG.  234. 


Those  fruits  that  consist  of  achenia  on  a  dry  re- 
ceptacle, as  the  sunflower,  or  on  an  enlarged,  pulpy 
receptacle,  as  the  strawberry,  or  those  which  consist 
of  small  drupes  on  a  dry,  spongy  receptacle,  crowded 
almost  into  one  mass,  as  the  blackberry,  are  aggregate 
fruits.  They  are  sometimes  called  etcerio. 

Accessory,  or  anthocarpous  fruits,  are  such  as  con- 
sist of  other  parts  of  the  flower  only  apparently  joined 
with  the  ovary. 

MULTIPLE,  COLLECTIVE,  or  CONFLUENT  Furors,  are 
formed  by  the  union  of  many  separate  flowers  into 
one  mass  (Figs.  235  and  236). 

The  sorosis  is  a  kind  of  multiple  fruit,  to  which 


THE   FRUIT   AND    SEED. 


113 


the  pineapple  (Fig.  235)  belongs.  The  fig  is  a  mul- 
tiple fruit  of  the  kind  known  as  syconus,  while 
strobilus  is  the  name  given  to  the  multiple  fruit  of 
trees  of  the  pine  family. 


FIG.  235. 


Fia.  236. 


EXEKOISE  XXXIX. 
The  Seed.— Its  Form  and  Surface. 


The  forms  of  seeds  vary  very  much. 
They  may  be  globular,  ovoid,  reniform, 
oblong,  cylindrical,  topshaped,  angular, 
etc.  Some  seeds  are  small  and  fine, 
like  sawdust ;  others  are  flattened  and 
bordered,  as  seen  in  Fig.  237. 


FIG.  237. 


114 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


The  surfaces  of  seeds  may  be  smooth,  striated, 
ribbed,  furrowed,  netted,  and  tubercular,  as  shown  in 
the  following  figures : 


FIG.  238. 


D 

Smooth. 
FIG.  241. 


FIG.  289. 


FIG.  240. 


Netted. 


Tubercular. 


Furrowed. 


Seeds  are  said  to  be  definite  when  few  and  con- 
stant in  number ;  indefinite  when  numerous  and  va- 
riable. 

Seeds  are  solitary  when  single  in  the  ovary,  or  in 
a  cell  of  the  ovary. 

The  albumen  of  seeds  is  the  mass  of  tissue  in 
which  the  embryo  is  embedded.  It  is  said  to  be  mealy 
when  it  may  be  readily  broken  down  into  a  starchy 
powder ;  oily,  when  loaded  with  oil ;  mucilaginous, 
when  tough,  swelling  up  readily  in  water ;  and  horny, 
when  hard,  and  more  or  less  elastic. 

ALBUMINOUS  SEEDS  are  those  which  have  albumen. 

EXALBUMINOUS  SEEDS  are  those  in  which  the  body 
consists  of  the  embryo  alone. 


THE   FRUIT   AND   SEED. 


115 


The  relations  of  embryo  to  albumen  in  various 
seeds  are  here  shown.  Your  own  observation,  how- 
ever, must  have  already  supplied  you  with  much  in- 
formation upon  this  subject. 


FIG.  244. 


FIG.  245. 


FIG.  246. 


FIG.  247. 


FIG.  248. 


EXERCISE  XL. 
Position  of  the  Embryo  in  Seeds. 

As  the  dissection  of  seeds  is  such  an  easy  opera- 
tion, you  must  be  familiar  with  the  different  aspects 
of  the  embryo  in  many  different  seeds.  You  have 
seen  it  large  and  small,  straight  and  curved,  outside 
the  albumen  and  embedded  within  it;  sometimes 
with  flat  cotyledons,  and  sometimes  with  cotyledons 
folded  or  coiled  in  various  ways  and  degrees.  We 
are  now  to  observe  its  relation  to  the  parts  of  the 


In  studying  ovules,  you  found  the  hilum  and  the 
micropyle,  and  you  may  find  the  same  parts  in  the 
seeds  that  were  once  ovules.  The  hilum  of  seeds  is 


116 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


usually  obvious  enough,  and  the  micropyle  may  be 
easily  found.  You  have  only  to  soak  the  seed  till  its 
coats  are  distended  with  water,  and,  on  squeezing, 
the  micropyle,  or  orifice  in  the  coats,  is  made  appar- 
ent by  the  escape  of  water  at  that  point.  The  place 
of  the  micropyle  is  important,  because  the  radicle  of 
the  embryo  always  points  toward  it,  and,  in  sprout- 
ing, issues  through  it,  and  the  relation  of  the  micro- 
pyle to  the  hilum  determines  the  attitude  of  the  em- 
bryo. Seeds  are  straight,  half  inverted,  inverted, 
and  curved,  the  same  as  ovules,  and  the  same  terms 
are  used  to  express  these  facts  in  regard  to  them.  In 
a  straight  or  orthotropous  seed  (Fig.  249),  the  micro- 
pyle being  at  the  apex,  you  find  an  inverted  embryo, 
like  Fig.  250.  In  this  case  the  embryo  is  said  to  be 
antitropal,  or  reversed. 


FIG.  249. 


FIG.  250. 


Micropyle. ; 


Hilum. 


If  the  micropyle  be  turned  to  one  side,  as  in  Fig. 
251,  an  amphitropous  seed,  the  embryo,  will  be  ob- 


FIG.  251. 


FIG.  252. 


FIG.  253. 


THE   FRUIT  AOT)   SEED.  117 

lique,  as  seen  in  Fig.  253.  In  this  case  the  embryo 
is  said  to  be  heterotropal.  Fig.  252  represents  the 
seed  which  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  253. 

If  the  seed  be  inverted,  or  antitropous  (Fig.  254), 
the  embryo  will  be  erect,  as  shown  in  Fig.  255.  Here 
the  embryo  is  said  to  be  orthotropaL 

FIG.  254.  FIG.  255. 


Micropyle. 


In  Fig.  256,  which  represents  a  seed  curved  upon 
itself  so  as  to  bring  the  orifice  next  the  hilum,  or 
point  of  attachment  (campylotropous  seed),  you  may 
find  the  embryo  presenting  the  appearance  shown  in 
Fig.  257. 

FIG.  256.  FIG.  257. 


Hilum. :^f  v  « Micropyle. 


When  the  embryo  is  in  the  centre  of  the  albumen 
(Fig.  255),  it  is  said  to  be  axial;  and  when  not  in  the 
centre,  it  is  said  to  be  excentric. 

Among  the  various  modes  of  folding  to  which  the 
embryo  is  subject,  there  are  two  which  have  been 
specially  noticed  and  named,  because  they  occur  so 
uniformly  in  certain  groups  of  plants.  They  are 
cotyledons  accumbent ;  that  is,  with  the  radicle  folded 
against  their  edges ;  and  cotyledons  incumbent,  having 
the  radicle  folded  against  the  back  of  one  of  them. 


118  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

The  following  questions,  forming  a  pistil-schedule, 
may  now  be  used  as  a  guide  for  pupils  in  describing 
this  important  organ  of  plants : 

Form  and  position  of  stigma  ? 

Form  and  position  of  style  ? 

Kind  of  pistil  ? 

Placentation  ? 

Dehiscence  ? 

Direction  of  ovules  ? 

Kinds  of  ovules  ? 

Fruit? 

Seed? 

Embryo  ? 

Achenium  (Gr.,  #,  not ;  chaino,  I  open). 

Capsule  (Lat.,  capsula,  a  little  chest). 

Caryopsis  (Gr.,  Icare,  a  head ;  opsis,  appearance). 

Cremocarp  (Gr.,  Icremao,  I  hang;  karpos,  fruit). 

Cypsela  (Lat.,  a  martin,  or  swallow). 

Drupe  (Lat.,  drupcz,  unripe  olives). 

Epicarp  (Gr.,  epi,  upon;  Tcarpos,  fruit). 

Endocarp  (Gr.,  endon,  within). 

Etcerio  (Gr.,  etarios,  a  companion). 

Follicle  (Lai.,  folliculus,  a  little  bag). 

Legume  (Lat.,  legumen,  pulse). 

Loment  (Lat.,  bean,  meal). 

Mesocarp  (Gr.,  mesos,  middle ;  karpos,  fruit). 

Pome  (Lat.,  pomum,  an  apple). 

PT/zis  (Lat.,  a  little  box). 

Silique  (Lat.,  siliqua,  a  husk,  or  pod). 

Sorosis  (Gr.,  s<?r0s,  a  heap). 

StroMlus  (Lat.,  a  fir-cone). 

Syconus  (Gr.,  swfow,  a  fig). 


CHAPTEK    VI. 

PLORAL    SYMMETRY,   PHYLLOTAXY,   PREFOLIA- 
TION,   CYMOSE   INFLORESCENCE,   ETC. 


EXERCISE  XLI. 
Numerical  Plan  of  the  Flower. 

WHEN,  in  examining  a  flower,  you  count  the  parts 
of  its  calyx  and  corolla,  the  stamens  and  the  carpels, 
and  find  that  some  particular  number  occurs  again 
and  again ;  and  when,  in  case  of  deviation,  you  fre- 


FIG.  258. 


FIG.  259. 


FIG.  260. 


quently  find  multiples  of  it,  the  plan  of  the  flower  is 
said  to  be  based  upon  this  number.  For  instance, 
the  plan  of  the  flower  represent- 
ed in  Fig.  258  is  based  on  the 
number  three.  The  plan  of  the 
flowers  represented  in  Fig.  259 
is  based  on  the  number  four,  and 
that  of  Fig.  260  upon  the  number 
five.  In  other  words,  in  Fig.  258, 
three,  or  its  multiple,  six,  is  the 
constant  number ;  in  Fig.  259,  four  is  the  prevailing 

number ;  while  in  Fig.  260,  it  is  five. 
6 


120 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


What  numbers  have  occurred  oftenest  in  your 
written  descriptions  of  flowers  ?  When  you  describe 
a  flower,  observe  always  what  figures  you  use  in 
numbering  its  parts,  and  decide  what  number  the 
plan  of  the  flower  is  based  upon. 


EXERCISE  XLII. 
Alternation  of  Parts  in  Flowers. 

Figs.  262  and  263  represent  the  stamens  and  pis- 
til of  the  flower  shown  in  Fig.  261.     Does  this  picture 


Fio.  261. 


FIG 


FIG.  263. 


FLOKAL    SYMMETRY,    ETC. 


121 


represent  a  perfect  flower?  Does  it  represent  a 
complete  flower?  a  regular  flower?  a  symmetrical 
flower?  Fig.  264  is  a  cross-section  of  this  flower, 
given  to  illustrate  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each 
other.  Observe  that  the  petals  alternate  with  the 
sepals ;  that  is,  they  stand  opposite  to  the  openings, 
between  the  sepals.  In  the  same  way  the  stamens 


FIG.  264. 


FIG.  265. 


FIG.  266. 


FIG.  26T. 


alternate  with  the  petals,  and  the  carpels  with  the 
stamens.  This  regular  alternation  of  parts  is  spoken 
of  as  a  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  flower.  Fig. 
267  is  the  cross-section  of  Fig.  265,  and  Fig.  266  gives 
a  vertical  section  of  the  same  flower.  Are  its  parts 
arranged  symmetrically?  that  is,  is  the  alternation 
perfect  ? 


122 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


You  see  that  flowers  present  symmetry  of  arrange- 
ment as  well  as  symmetry  of  numbers,  and  it  is  im- 
portant that  you  should  observe  them  in  this  respect. 
Determine  what  parts  of  the  flower  you  are  studying 
alternate  symmetrically,  and  where  the  symmetry 
fails.  You  will  often  find  these  observations  valua- 
ble in  classification. 


EXERCISE  XLIII. 
"Leaf  Arrangement.— Phyllotaxis. 

FIG.  268. 


FLOKAL    SYMMETRY,    ETC. 


123 


To  study  leaf  arrangement,  get  straight  leafy 
stems,  or  shoots,  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  such  as 
are  shown  in  Figs.  268  and  269,  from  any  vigorous 
tree,  shrub,  or  herb.  First  separate  the  specimens 
having  opposite  and  verticillate  leaves  from  those 
with  alternate  leaves. 

FIG.  269. 


Observe  that  the  successive  pairs  of  leaves  in  op- 
posite-leaved plants  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  each 


124 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


other,  each  leaf  of  the  upper  pair  being  placed  over 
a  space  left  by  the  lower  pair.  They  are  hence  called 
decussate  leaves.  In  the  same  way  the  whorls  of 
leaves  in  verticillate-leaved  stems  are  so  placed  that 
they  alternate  with  each  other. 

Observe  the  arrangement  of  leaves  in  the  stems 
of  grasses,  and  in  stems  with  equitant  leaves. 

Put  by  themselves  all  the  stems  in  which  the 
leaves  are  neither  decussate  nor  whorled. 

Examine  them,  one  after  the  other,  thus  :  Take  a 
small  string,  and,  holding  one  end  of  it  just  below  one 
of  the  lower  leaves  of  your  specimen,  carry  it  up  and 
around  the  stem  (Fig.  270),  so  that  it  shall  pass  just 


FIG.  2TO. 


FIG.  271. 


under  each  successive  leaf.  Proceed  in  this  way  till 
you  reach  a  leaf  standing  directly  over  the  one  you 
started  with.  Your  string  now  includes  what  is 


FLORAL    SYMMETRY.    ETC. 


125 


called  a  leaf-cycle;  that  is,  the  distance  in  a  spiral 
line  around  the  stem,  from  one  leaf  to  another  placed 
exactly  above  it. 


FIG.  272. 


Holding  the  string  in  place,  observe,  first,  how 
many  times  it  has  wound  around  the  stem ;  and,  sec- 
ondly, how  many  leaves  it  passes  on  its  way.  If,  in 
passing  from  the  first  leaf  to  the  one  directly  over  it, 
the  string  makes  but  one  circuit  around  the  stem,  and 
the  third  leaf  is  over  the  first,  so  that  the  cycle  in- 
cludes but  two  leaves,  the  fourth  leaf  being  over  the 
second,  and  so  on,  you  have  an  arrangement  like  that 


126  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF    BOTANY. 

seen  in  Fig.  268.  The  leaves  in  this  example  are 
seen  to  form  two  rows  along  the  side  of  the  stem, 
which  are  separated  by  half  its  diameter. 

This  is  the  distichous,  two-ranked,  or  £  arrange- 
ment. 

If,  in  passing  from  one  leaf  to  another,  directly 
above  it,  the  string  goes  but  once  round  the  stem, 
and  the  fourth  leaf  is  over  the  first,  giving  a  cycle  of 
three  leaves,  the  arrangement  is  like  that  shown  in 
Figs.  269  and  270.  There  are  three  perpendicular 
rows  of  leaves  along  the  stem,  separated  from  each 
other  by  £  its  circumference. 

This  is  the  tri-stichous,  three-ranked,  or  J-  arrange- 
ment. 

Again,  the  string  may  pass  twice  around  the  stem 
before  it  reaches  the  leaf  placed  just  over  the  first, 
which,  on  counting,  proves  to  be  the  sixth  (Fig.  272). 
There  are  five  longitudinal  rows  along  the  stem,  sep- 
arated from  each  other  by  f  its  circumference. 

This  is  the  pentastichous,  quincuncial,  or  f  ar- 
rangement. 

Observe  that  the  numerator  in  the  foregoing  frac- 
tions gives  the  number  of  times  the  string  winds 
around  the  stem  in  completing  a  cycle,  while  the  de- 
nominator gives  the  number  of  leaves  in  the  cycle. 

This  fraction  is  sometimes  called  the  angle  of  di- 
vergence of  the  leaves.  In  Fig.  268  the  angle  of  di- 
vergence is  -J-  the  circumference  of  the  stem ;  in  Fig. 
269  it  is  -J-,  and  in  Fig.  271  it  is  f  its  circumference. 

In  studying  some  of  your  specimens,  the  string 
may  pass  three  times  round  the  stem  in  its  spiral 
course  before  you  come  to  a  leaf  placed  over  the  first, 
and  this  leaf  may  be  the  ninth  in  the  upward  succes- 


FLOEAL    SYMMETRY,    ETC.  127 

sion,  eight  leaves  being  required  to  complete  tlie 
cycle.  Here  you  have  eight  perpendicular  rows  of 
leaves,  with  an  angular  divergence  of  f  the  circum- 
ference of  the  stem ;  it  is,  therefore,  called  the  f  ar- 
rangement. 

In  some  plants  the  leaf-cycle  includes  five  turns 
of  the  spiral  and  thirteen  leaves,  so  that  the  four- 
teenth is  placed  over  the  first.  This  is  the  -£%  ar- 
rangement. There  are  also  the  /T,  the  ^-f-  arrange- 
ments, and  so  on.  But  these  more  complex  modes 
are  only  found  where  leaves  grow  in  rosettes,  as  the 
houseleek,  or  in  the  case  of  crowded  radical  leaves, 
or  in  the  scales  of  cones.  In  these  cases  the  vertical 
rows  are  not  distinguishable,  and  the  order  has  to  be 
made  out  by  processes  of  reasoning  rather  than  by 
simple  observation. 

There  is  a  curious  feature  of  the  fractions  express- 
ing the  angular  divergence  of  leaves.  Observe  that 
any  one  of  the  fractions  of  the  series  is  the  sum  of 
the  two  preceding  simpler  ones.  For  example,  the 
angles  of  divergence  in  Figs.  268  and  269  are  %  and 
•J-.  Adding  these  numerators  and  these  denomina- 
tors, we  have  f ,  the  pentastichous,  or  next  more  com- 
plex arrangement.  By  adding,  in  the  same  way,  -J 
and  f ,  we  get  f,  while  f  and  f  give  -f^,  and  so  on. 

The  £,  £,  and  -f-  modes  of  arrangement  are  so  defi- 
nite and  simple  as  to  be  easily  discovered ;  but,  it  is 
not  worth  while,  ordinarily,  to  continue  the  study  of 
a  specimen  if  it  does  not  belong  to  one  of  these  modes. 
A  slight  twisting  of  the  stem,  a  considerable  length- 
ening of  internodes,  or  their  absence  altogether,  ren- 
ders observation  difficult,  and  the  decision  uncertain. 
So,  when  commencing  the  study  of  leaf-arrangement, 


128  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

take  care  to  select  the  straightest  and  thriftiest  stems 
for  the  purpose. 

Examine  the  arrangement  of  bracts,  and  see  if 
they  follow  the  same  order  as  leaves. 

Observe  whether  the  spirals  take  the  same  direc- 
tion in  branches  as  in  the  parent  stem.  When  they 
do,  they  are  called  homodromous  /  but  when  they 
turn  in  opposite  directions,  they  are  said  to  be  hetero- 
dromous. 

Give  the  numbers  of  the  leaves  in  each  perpen- 
dicular series  in  your  specimen  showing  the  |-  ar- 
rangement (Fig.  268). 

In  the  -J  arrangement,  what  leaf  stands  over  the 
first?  over  the  second?  the  third?  fourth?  fifth? 
Give  the  series  of  numbers  that  belong  to  the  leaves 
of  each  row. 

The  name  applied  by  botanists  to  these  modes  of 
leaf-arrangement  is  phyllotaxis. 


EXERCISE  XLIV. 

Arrangement  of  Floral  Leaves  in  the  Bud.— Esti- 
vation, or  Prcefloration. 

In  most  common  flowers,  the  floral  circles,  calyx, 
corolla,  etc.,  appear  quite  distinct ;  but  have  you 
never  observed  cases  in  which  it  was  doubtful  where 
the  calyx  ended  and  the  corolla  began  ?  or,  where  the 
corolla  ended  and  the  calyx  began  ?  or,  even,  where 
the  bracts  ended  and  the  calyx  began  ?  Have  you 
never  seen  petaloid  sepals?  that  is,  sepals  with  the 


FLORAL   SYMMETRY,    ETC.  129 

color  and  delicacy  of  petals  ?  Have  you  not  seen  in 
the  same  flower  some  sepals  that  were  green,  and 
some  changed  more  or  less  toward  petals?  or,  the 
same  sepal  green  without  and  petal-like  within  ?  Have 
you  not  seen  the  involucre  made  up  of  colored  bracts, 
which  gave  it  the  aspect  of  a  corolla  ?  Have  you  not 
sometimes  met  with  flowers  in  which  you  could  see 
the  gradual  transition  from  petals  to  stamens?  or 
flowers  in  which  some  of  the  stamens  or  carpels  were 
changed  to  green  foliage-leaves?  Have  you  ever 
known  of  single  flowers  becoming  double  by  cultiva- 
tion, and  of  stamens  and  carpels  replaced  by  petals  ? 
Did  you  ever  happen  to  see  a  leafy  shoot  growing  out 
from  the  centre  of  a  flower,  or  of  a  flower-bud  ?  All 
these  appearances  are  common  enough ;  and,  if  you 
have  not  seen  them,  you  may  easily  do  so  by  keeping 
your  eyes  about  you. 

It  is  from  these  singular  aspects  of  plants,  joined 
with  the  study  of  their  development,  that  botanists 
have  come  to  regard  flowers  as  altered  branches,  and 
floral  leaves  as  changed  foliage-leaves.  They  speak 
of  carpels  as  carpellary  leaves,  stamens  as  staminal 
leaves,  petals  as  corolla-leaves,  and  the  sepals  as  calyx, 
leaves. 

If  this  be  so,  the  laws  of  arrangement  of  floral 
leaves  ought  to  agree  with  the  phyllotaxy  of  foliage- 
leaves.  Botanists  say  that  it  does  so  agree,  and  the 
place  where  it  is  best  seen  is  in  the  flower-bud.  The 
arrangement  of  floral  leaves  should  also  be  studied, 
because  it  is  important  in  helping  to  determine  the 
affinities  of  plants. 

To  observe  this  arrangement,  make  an  horizontal 
section  of  a  bud  just  before  it  opens.  Be  careful  to 


130 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 


make  the  section  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bud,  where 
the  petals  and  sepals  are  most  easily  seen.  Observe, 
with  a  magnify  ing-glass,  the  disposition  of  parts,  and 
compare  your  examples  with  the  modes  of  arrange- 
ment here  pictured  and  named. 

In  YALVULAR  praefloration  there  is  no  overlapping 
of  parts.  The  edges  of  the  sepals  and  petals  just  meet, 
and  the  flower  is  almost  always  regular  (Fig.  273). 

INDUPLICATE  is  a  form  of  a  valvate  aestivation,  in 
which  the  edges  are  turned  slightly  inward,  or  touch 
by  their  external  face  (Fig.  274). 


FIG.  273. 


FIG.  274 


REDUPLICATE  is  a  form  of  valvate  aestivation,  in 
which  the  edges  turn  slightly  outward,  or  touch  by 
their  internal  face  (Fig.  275). 

In  the  CONTORTED  arrangement,  each  leaf  overlaps 
its  neighbor,  and  the  parts  seem  twisted  together 
(Fig.  276).  It  becomes  CONVOLUTE  when  each  sepal 
or  petal  wholly  covers  those  within  it. 


FIG.  275. 


FIG.  276. 


FLORAL   SYMMETRY,    ETC. 


131 


In  IMBRICATE  aestivation,  the  parts  of  a  floral  cir- 
cle, usually  five,  are  placed  as  seen  in  Fig.  277.  The 
first  leaf  is  external,  the  fifth  internal,  and  the  inter- 
mediate ones  successively  overlap  each  other. 

The  QUINCUNCIAL  arrangement  is  seen  in  Fig.  278. 
There  are  two  exterior  leaves,  two  interior,  and  one 
intermediate. 


The  YEXILLARY  arrangement  (Fig.  279)  is  a  form 
of  the  quincuncial,  where  one  of  the  petals,  that 
ought  to  be  internal,  has,  by  rapid  growth,  become 
larger  than  the  others,  and  external  to  them,  so  as 
to  cover  them  in. 

In  the  COCHLEAR  arrangement,  inequality  of  de- 
velopment has  produced  the  order  seen  in  Fig.  280. 

We  are  reminded  of  the  DECUSSATE  arrangement 
of  foliage-leaves  by  the  position  of  the  floral  leaves 
shown  in  Fig.  281. 


FIG.  281. 


132 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


The  STJPERVOLTJTE  arrangement  is  the  name  given 
to  the  folding  of  the  gamosepalous  calyx,  or  the 
gamopetalous  corolla  (Fig.  282).  Observe  whether 
the  overlapping  is  from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to 


FIG.  282. 


FIG.  283. 


right,  as  you  stand  before  the  flower.  Observe,  also, 
whether  the  mode  of  arrangement  is  the  same  in  the 
calyx  and  corolla. 

The  plaiting  of  a  gamopetalous  corolla  is  shown 
in  Fig.  283. 


EXEECISE  XLV. 
Cymose,  or  Definite  Inflorescence. 

In  the  "  First  Book  "  nothing  was  said  about  the 
varieties  of  definite,  or  cymose  inflorescence,  because 
it  often  requires  much  skill  and  patience  to  determine 
whether  a  particular  panicle,  corymb,  raceme,  or  head, 
is  definite  or  indefinite. 

The  buttercup,  wild-columbine,  rose,  and  cinque- 
foil,  are  common  examples  of  cymose  inflorescence 
among  alternate  -  leaved  plants,  while  Saint- John's- 


FLOKAL    SYMMETKY,    ETC. 


133 


wort,  chickweed,  sedum  or  live-forever,  dog-wood, 
elder,  hydrangea,  are  opposite-leaved  examples.  Get 
as  many  of  these  as  you  can,  and  begin  the  study 
with  the  inflorescence  of  an  alternate-leaved  plant. 
Compare  it  with  Fig.  284.  In  this  plant  each  shoot 


FIG.  284. 


terminates  in  a  flower,  and  the  growth  is  continued 
by  means  of  branches.  In  this  figure  the  main,  or 
primary  stem  (A,  A),  terminates  with  a  flower  which 
must,  of  course,  be  the  oldest  of  the  cluster.  The 
branches  (B,  B,  B)  continue  the  growth,  blossom,  and 


THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 


cease  to  lengthen.      From  these  branches  proceed 
others  (C,  C),  and  so  on. 

Such  a  loose,  irregular,  definite  inflorescence  is 
called  a  cyme  ;  but,  when  the  number  of  branches  is 
greatly  increased,  and  the  peduncles  acquire  such 
lengths  as  to  give  a  peculiar  outline,  the  cluster  re- 
ceives a  more  special  name.  Fig.  285  represents  the 
cymose  inflorescence  of  an  opposite-leaved  plant.  The 
main,  or  primary  stem,  terminates  in  a  flower  between 
two  branches.  These  branches,  or  secondary  stems, 
also  terminate  in  flowers,  each  one  of  which  is  situ- 
ated between  branches  of  the  third  order,  and  so  on. 

In  this  way  is  formed 
a  forked  or  dichotomous 
cyme.  If,  in  place  of  two, 
we  have  three  branches, 


FIG.  285. 


forming  a  sort  of  whorl  around  the  primary  stem,  and 
each  of  these  branches  has  another  whorl  of  three 
tertiary  branches,  and  so  on,  we  get  a  trichotomous 
cyme.  "When  the  branching  is  carried  forward,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  286,  the  cyme  becomes  globose.  When 
the  central  flower  is  suppressed,  the  process  of  de- 
velopment is  not  easily  traced. 


FLORAL    SYMMETRY,    ETC. 


135 


Suppose  that,  at  each  stage  of  the  branching  in 
Fig.  285,  one  of  the  divisions  is  regularly  suppressed, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  287,  where  the  dotted  lines  take  the 
place  of  the  absent  branches,  the  cyme  is  apparently 
changed  into  a  one-sided  raceme,  and  the  flowers  seem 
to  expand  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  indefinite  raceme. 
In  opposite-leaved  plants  bearing  this  kind  of  inflo- 
rescence, the  leaf  or  bract  opposite  the  flower  shows 
that  the  raceme  is  definite ;  but  when,  as  in  Fig.  288, 


FIG.  287. 


FIG  288. 


there  is  no  such  bract,  it  is  not  easy  to  decide  whether 
the  cluster  is  definite  or  indefinite.  However,  the 
one-sided  mode  of  branching  gives  the  stem  a  coiled 
appearance,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  false  or 
cymose  raceme,  and  has  led  to  the  name  scorpioid 
which  is  sometimes  applied  to  it. 

You  may  know   a   cymose  umbel  by   observing 
that  its  oldest  flowers  are  in  the  centre  of  the  cluster 


136 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


(Fig.  289),  with  buds,  on  short  peduncles,  surround- 
ing them. 

A  FASCICLE  (Fig.  290)  is  a  cymose  cluster  of  nearly 
sessile  flowers. 


PIG.  289. 


FIG.  290. 


FIG.  291. 


FLORAL    SYMMETRY,    ETC.  137 

A  GLOMERULE  is  a  cymose  cluster  of  sessile  flow- 
ers in  the  axil  of  a  leaf  (Fig.  291). 

What  is  known  as  compound  inflorescence  occurs 
when  the  flower-clusters  of  a  plant  develop  in  one 
way,  and  the  plant  itself  develops  in  another  way. 
For  instance,  in  Fig.  291  each  cluster  is  definite,  or 
cymose,  while  the  stem  that  bears  them  is  indefinite. 
This  state  of  things  is  often  met  with.  Compare  the 
development  of  the  sunflower  with  that  of  catnip 
and  horehound  in  this  respect. 

The  indefinite  mode  of  growth  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  centrifugal,  because  the  flowers  open  first  at  the 
circumference ;  while  definite  forms  are  said  to  be 
centrifugal,  because  here  the  flowers  open  at  the  cen- 
tre first. 


EXERCISE    XLVI. 
Duration  of  Floral  Envelops. 

The  floral  whorls  are  said  to  be  CADUCOUS  when 
they  fall  off  at  the  opening  of  the  flower.  Ex- 
amples, calyx  of  the  poppy,  corolla  of  the  grape- 
vine. 

DECIDUOUS,  when  they  fall  before  the  fruit  is 
formed. 

PERSISTENT,  when  they  remain  till  the  fruit  is 
matured,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  the  calyx  of 
inferior  fruit. 

MARCESCENT,  when  they  persist  in  a  dry  and 
withered  state. 


138  THE   SECOND  BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   XLVIL 
Surfaces. 

The  surfaces  of  plants  are  said  to  be  SILKY  when 
the  hairs  are  long,  very  fine,  and  pressed  closely  to 
the  surface,  so  as  to  present  a  silky  appearance. 

ARACHNOID,  when  the  hairs  are  very  long,  and 
loosely  entangled,  so  as  to  resemble  cobweb, 

BEARDED,  when  the  hairs  are  long,  and  placed  in 
tufts.  %. 

DOWNY,  or  PUBESCENT,  when  the  hairs  form  a 
short,  soft  stratum,  which  only  partially  covers  the 
cuticle. 

HAIRY,  when  the  hairs  are  rather  longer,  and 
more  rigid. 

VILLOUS,  very  long,  very  soft,  erect,  and  straight. 

VELVETY,  short,  soft,  very  dense,  but  rather  rigid, 
forming  a  surface  like  velvet. 

^Estivation  (Lat.,  cestivus,  summer). 

Arachnoid  (Gr.,  arachne,  a  spider). 

CocJilear  (Lat.,  cochlea,  a  snail). 

Convolute  (Lat.,  conwlutus,  wrapped  together). 

Cyme  (Lat.,  cyma,  a  sprout). 

Decussate  (Lat.,  decussatus,  cut  crossways). 

Dichotomous  (Gr.,  dichotomos,  divided  into  two). 

Distichous  (Gr.,  dis,  twice ;  stichos,  a  rank). 

Heterodromous  (Gr.,  eteros,  another ;  dromos,  course). 

Homodromous  (Gr.,  omios,  similar). 

Induplicate  (Lat.,  in,  in  ;  duplicatus,  doubled). 

Marcessent  (Lat.,  marcesco,  I  decoy). 

Phylotaxis  (Gr.,'  phullon,  a  leaf;  taxis,  order). 

Quincuncial  (Lat.,  quincunx,  an  arrangement  of  five). 

Supervolute  (Lat.,  super,  upon ;  wlutus,  rolled). 

Vexillary  (Lat.,  vexillum,  a  standard). 

Villose  (Lat.,  mllus,  wool). 


CHAPTEK   VII. 
THE   COMPOSITE. 


EXERCISE  XLYIII. 
Farts  of  Flower-Heads. 

To  illustrate  this  chapter,  gather  all  the  plants 
you  can  find  that  have  the  inflorescence  in  a  dense 


FIG.  292. 


Florets. 


Involucre  of  Bracts. 


140  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

head.  The  dandelion,  thistle,  aster,  marigold,  sun- 
flower, daisy,  dahlia,  burdock,  mayweed,  bachelor's- 
button,  boneset  or  thoroughwort,  golden-rod,  lettuce, 
saffron,  cudweed  or  everlasting,  wormwood,  tansy, 
yarrow,  feverfew,  camomile,  ragweed,  tickseed,  ele- 
campane, are  familiar  examples  of  such  plants.  For 
your  first  observations  select  some  flower-head  in 
which  the  parts  are  well  developed,  as  the  marigold, 
thistle,  or  dandelion.  Fig.  292  shows  a  thistle-head, 
with  lines  pointing  to  its  principal  divisions. 


FIG.  293. 

Florets. 


Involucre  of  Bracta. 


Fig.  293  represents  a  marigold,  in  which  the  same 
parts  are  shown.  In  Fig.  294  we  look  down  upon 
the  top  of  the  flower-head,  and  observe  that  it  pre- 
sents unlikeness  of  aspect,  which  is  still  more  plainly 
seen  in  the  section  (Fig.  295). 


THE  COMPOSITE. 
FIG.  294. 


141 


Disk  Florets, 


FIG.  295. 


Eay  Florets. 


Disk  Florets. 


The  parts  pointed  out  in  these  pictures  may  be 
thus  defined : 

INVOLTJCEE. — The  outer  green  circle  of  a  flower- 
head,  often  mistaken  for  a  calyx. 


142 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


SCALES. — The  bracts  forming  the  involucre  of  a 
flower-head. 

FLORETS. — The  flowers  of  a  flower-head. 

KAY  FLORETS. — The  outer  petal-like  florets  of  a 
flower-head. 

DISK  FLORETS. — The  inner  florets  of  a  flower- 
head. 

Observe  the  bract  at  the  base  of  the  floret  in  Fig. 
297.  Observe  the  chaffy,  bract-like  bodies  growing 
among  the  florets  in  Fig.  296.  Examine  your  speci- 
mens, and  see  if,  in  any  case,  you  find  such  things 
growing  out  of  the  receptacle  among  the  florets. 


FIG.  296. 


FIG  297. 


FIG.  298. 


These  chaffy  bodies  are  kn,own  as  palece.  When 
they  are  wanting,  the  receptacle  is  said  to  be  naked. 
Separate  the  naked  from  the  chaffy  flower-heads  of 
your  collection. 

In  Fig.  298  you  see  the  convex  receptacle  at  a. 
Observe  the  different  forms  presented  by  the  recep- 


THE   COMPOSITE. 


14:3 


tacle  in  the  last  four  figures.  Strip  away  the  florets 
from  your  flower-heads,  and  compare  them  in  this 
respect.  Are  any  conical  in  shape  ?  Are  any  colum- 
nar? Are  any  pitted  or  honey-combed?  In  Fig. 
298  is  shown  half  the  involucre  of  a  marigold.  Com- 
pare the  involucres  of  your  collection.  They  may 
be  hemispherical,  conical,  inversely  conical,  squar- 
rose,  oblong,  cup-shaped,  etc.  Their  scales  may  be 
many  or  few ;  narrow  or  broad ;  in  one  or  several 
rows ;  loosely  or  closely  imbricate ;  chaffy,  spinous,  or 
soft ;  reflexed,  colored,  etc. 


EXERCISE  XLIX. 
The  Florets. 

Let  us  now  examine,  with  some  care,  the 
ure  of  florets.  The  flower-head  here  dissected 
of  the  marigold.  If  you 
cannot  get  this  plant,  take 
the  sun-flower,  or  daisy, 
or  dandelion  and  thistle, 
or  any  other  flower-heads 
you  happen  to  have.  Oi 
course,  it  is  desirable,  at 
the  outset  of  study,  to 
get  the  largest  florets  you 
can  find. 

Fig.  299  represents  a 
section  of  the  marigold; 
a,  the  ray  florets ;  £,  the 


struct- 
is  that 


-a* 


144: 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


disk  florets ;  <?,  the  involucre ;  d,  the  receptacle  ;  and 
e,  the  peduncle. 

Fig.  300  shows  one  of  the  ray  florets,  with  its 
strap-shaped  corolla,  d  the  limb,  and  c  the  tube.  At 
e  is  seen  the  forked  stigma  of  the  pistil ;  a  is  the 
ovary,  and  ~b  the  limb  of  the  calyx.  Compare  this 
picture,  or,  what  is  better,  a  living  example,  with 
one  of  the  florets  of  a  dandelion,  and  carefully  note 
the  differences  of  structure  they  present. 


FIG.  300. 


FIG.  301. 


Fig.  301  represents  a  disk  floret;  a,  the  ovary; 
5,  the  limb  of  the  calyx ;  and  e,  the  tubular  corolla. 
Compare  this  floret  with  those  of  the  thistle,  or  any 
tubular  florets  in  your  collection. 

In  looking  for  the  limb  of  the  calyx  in  your  speci- 
mens, you  have  found  very  various  and  peculiar  ap- 


THE   COMPOSITE. 


145 


pearances.  This  part  of  florets,  from  its  singularity, 
has  received  the  special  name  of  pappus.  In  some, 
you  observe,  it  does  not  exist  at  all,  the  adherent  tube 
of  the  calyx  forming  an  indistinguishable  part  of  the 
ovary ;  in  such  cases  the  limb  is  said  to  be  obsolete. 
Again,  it  is  a  mere  rim,  or  border ;  sometimes  it  is 
cup-shaped,  or  bristly,  or  composed  of  teeth,  scales, 
awns,  or  beards. 

In   the  dandelion  (Fig.   302)  and  the  thistle   it 
is   silky.      The  reason  given  for  this  singular   con- 


Fio.  802. 


FIG.  303. 


FIG.  304. 


dition  of  the  calyx-limb  is,  that  it  is  starved  and 
stunted  while  growing,  by  the  constant  pressure  of 
the  florets  against  each  other.  In  the  case  of  the 
dandelion,  while  the  seed  is  maturing,  the  tube  of 
the  calyx  is  prolonged  above  the  ovary  into  a  kind 
of  stalk,  and  the  pappus  is  said  to  be  stipitate. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  florets.  "We  have  not  yet 
examined  their  essential  organs.  Just  below  the 
stigma,  in  the  disk  floret  (Fig.  301),  is  a  cylindrical 
body,  which,  at  first,  you  may  not  understand.  Slit 


14:6 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 


it  down,  flatten  it  out,  and  examine  it  with  your 
glass.  Is  not  this  cylinder  composed  of  slender  co- 
herent anthers  ?  Do  you  not  see  each  anther  with  its 
filament,  as  shown  in  Fig.  303,  which  represents  the 
tube  seen  in  Fig.  304,  thus  laid  open  ?  The  stamens 
of  this  floret  are  syngeneseous. 

The  following  is  a  schedule  of  the  £  and  ? 
florets  of  the  marigold : 


SCHEDULE  EIGHTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Calyx  ? 
Sepals. 

5* 

Gamosepalous. 
Limb  of  narrow 
scales. 

Superior. 

$  Corolla  ? 
Petals. 

5 

Gamopetalous, 
tubular. 

Epigynous. 

$  Stamens  ? 

5 

Syngeneseous. 

Epigynous. 

g  Pistil? 
Carpels. 

2 

Syncarpous. 

Inferior. 

$  Corolla  ? 
Petals. 

5 

Gamopetalous, 
strap-shaped. 

Epigynous. 

$  Stamens  ? 

0 

0 

0 

?  Pistil? 
Carpels. 

2 

Syncarpous. 

Inferior. 

*  As  the  corolla  is  five-lobed,  and  there  are  five  stamens, 
the  florets  seem  to  be  five-merous,  and  we  put  the  number  of 
Is  as  five. 


THE   COMPOSITE. 


The  two  carpels  are  inferred  from  the  two-lobed 
stigma. 

Study  the  florets  of  the  dandelion.  Is  there  more 
than  one  sort  in  the  head  ?  Select  a  well-developed 
floret,  and  describe  it.  Does  your  account  agree 
with  the  following  schedule : 

SCHEDULE  NINTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Calyx? 
Sepals. 

5 

Gamosepalous. 

Superior. 

Corolla? 
Petals. 

5 

Gamopetalous. 

Epigynous. 

Stamens  ? 

5 

Syngeneseous. 

Epipetalous. 

Pistil? 

Carpels. 

2 

Syncarpous. 

Inferior. 

Seeds  ?                    Solitary,  erect,  exalbuminous. 

In  the  same  way  see  how  many  sorts  of  florets 
you  can  find  upon  the  thistle-head,  and  carefully 
describe  whatever  you  find.  Do  the  same  for  all  the 
plants  of  this  family  that  you  have  collected.  When 
a  flower-head  has  both  disk  and  ray  florets,  note 
whether  they  are  $  ,  $  ,  £  ,  or  neutral. 

When  you  have  done  this,  you  will  be  able  prop- 
erly to  apply  the  following  terms  to  inflorescences  of 
this  order : 

When  all  the  florets  of  a  head  are  perfect,  it  is 
said  to  be  homogamous. 


148  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

When  part  of  the  florets  are  imperfect •,  the  head 
is  said  to  be  heterogamous. 

Flower-heads  are  discoid  when  destitute  of  ray 
florets. 


EXERCISE  L. 
Characters  of  the  Compositce. 

Dandelions,  daisies,  dahlias,  thistles,  etc.,  we  see, 
are  composed  of  many  florets,  enclosed  in  a  calyx-like 
involucre.  Plants  of  this  kind  have,  therefore,  been 
named  composite  from  the  compound,  or  composite, 
nature  of  what,  to  the  untaught,  seems  a  single 
flower.  They  form  one  of  the  most  numerous,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  most  natural  and  perfect 
families  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  There  are  about 
nine  thousand  different  species  included  in  it.  They 
are  found  in  all  countries  and  climates.  About  -J-  of 
the  plants  of  North  America,  and  |-  of  all  tropical 
plants,  belong  to  it ;  indeed,  from  %  to  -fa  of  all  the 
plants  in  the  world  are  of  this  order. 

Now,  why  is  this  order  said  to  be  very  natural  ? 
Why,  for  instance,  is  it  a  more  natural  group  than  the 
rose  family  ?  If  examples  of  all  these  nine  thousand 
species  were  brought  together,  they  would  be  seen  to 
have  one  conspicuous  and  many  important  characters 
in  common.  In  every  one  of  them  the  inflorescence 
is  a  dense  head,  enclosed  in  a  more  or  less  compact 
involucre.  But,  when  you  have  collected  all  the 
members  of  the  rose  family,  you  do  not  see  so  many 
features  common  to  all,  nor  any  marked  one  which 
stamps  them  as  similar.  On  the  contrary,  in  all  their 


THE   COMPOSITE. 


149 


prominent  characters,  they  are  often  widely  unlike,  and 
only  experienced  botanists  can  detect  their  affinities. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  all  plants 
with  flowers  in  a  head  belong  to  this  family.  The 
case  is  not  quite  so  simple.  Plants  are  not  to  be 
classified  by  a  single  character,  you  know.  We  must 
not  forget  our  principle  that  characters  of  cohesion 
and  adhesion  in  the  flower  are  of  the  first  importance 
in  determining  affinities. 

Now,  what  are  the  characters  of  cohesion  and  ad- 
hesion in  which  the  florets  of  all  the  plants  named  in 
Ex.  XL VIII.  agree?  In  the  matter  of  cohesion,  you 


FIG.  306. 


FIG.  SOT. 


FIG.  808. 


always  found  the  calyx  gamosepalous,  the  corolla 
gamopetalous,  the  stamens  syngeneseous,  and  the 
forked  style,  of  which  Fig.  306  is  a  magnified  view, 
seems  to  imply  a  syncarpous  pistil,  although  the  ovary 
is  one-celled  and  one-ovuled. 


150  THE    SECOND   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

In  the  matter  of  adhesion,  you  always  found  the 
calyx-tube  adherent  to  the  ovary  (Fig.  308),  forming 
the  peculiar  kind  of  achenium,  known  as  a  cypcela, 
and  on  further  inspection  you  would  find  one  erect 
exalbuminous  seed  (Fig.  307) ;  and,  if  you  were  to 
examine  the  entire  nine  thousand  species,  you  would 
find  them  all  bearing  the  same  characters. 

But  you  need  not  discover  all  these  characters 
before  you  decide  that  a  given  plant  belongs  to  the 
composite  order.  If  you  find  syngeneseous  stamens 
in  the  florets  of  a  dense  flower-head,  it  settles  the 
question.  The  coexistence  of  the  two  characters 
makes  sure  the  inference  that  the  plant  has  all  the 
above-named  characters,  and  also  that  it  is  more  or 
less  bitter. 

Well,  you  have  now  the  means  of  easily  recog- 
nizing the  members  of  this  great  family.  They  differ 
from  all  other  plants,  not  in  their  inflorescence,  for 
many  other  plants  blossom  in  a  head ;  not  in  having 
syngeneseous  anthers,  for  in  many  other  plants  the 
anthers  are  coherent ;  but  they  differ  from  all  other 
plants  in  possessing  both  these  characters.  This 
circumstance  is,  therefore,  said  to  characterize  the 
compositse.  Observe  the  distinction  between  that 
which  characterizes  an  order  and  the  characters  of 
that  order.  The  coexistence  of  the  two  characters — 
syngeneseous  anthers  and  a  flower-head — is  sufficient 
to  identify  any  plant  of  the  order  compositse,  or, 
what  is  the  same  thing,  to  characterize  it ;  but  all  the 
other  characters  that  invariably  accompany  these  are 
the  characters  of  the  order. 

Though  all  composite  plants  are  alike  in  certain 
particulars,  called  their  ordinal  characters,  they  differ 


THE  COMPOSITE.  151 

much  among  themselves  in  other  respects.  Though 
they  all  have  bitter  properties,  yet  some  are  tonic, 
some  acrid,  and  some  narcotic.  One  group  will  have 
milky  juice,  another  will  be  watery  and  aromatic,  or 
mucilaginous,  or  gummy,  or  oily.  In  respect  to  the 
structure  of  flower-heads,  you  have  already  found  the 
dandelion,  with  all  its  florets,  perfect  and  ligulate ; 
you  found  the  thistle  with  perfect  tubular  florets,  you 
found  the  marigold  with  ?  ligulate  disk  florets,  and 
£  tubular  ray  florets,  the  daisy  with  ?  ray  florets, 
and  <$  disk  florets.  Differences  of  this  kind  serve  in 
arranging  this  vast  family  into  sub-families,  and  these 
sub-families  are  again  separated  into  smaller  groups 
by  still  other  characters.  Differences  in  the  involu- 
cre, and  in  the  conditions  of  the  inferior  fruit,  serve 
to  separate  them  into  what  are  called  genera,  and 
then  the  species  of  a  genus  are  found  to  differ  still 
further  in  the  characters  of  leaf  and  stem,  in  size, 
color,  etc. 

In  Order  VIII.  of  Chart  II.,  illustrating  the 
Composite,  the  characters  of  the  dandelion,  thistle, 
marigold,  bachelor's-button,  and  globe  amaranth,  are 
given ;  those  of  the  dandelion  and  thistle  are  pre- 
sented in  full  detail,  and  much  enlarged. 


CHAPTEE    VIII. 
THE  CRTTCIFEBJE,   OR   CROSS-BEARERS. 

EXERCISE  LI. 
Characters  of  the  Cruciferce. 

THE  plants  of  this  order  bear  flowers  with  a  cru- 
ciferous corolla.  About  sixteen  hundred  species  have 
been  discovered,  and  they  are  all  wholesome.  They 
grow  in  every  zone  and  country,  but  chiefly  in  tem- 
perate regions.  Both  wild  and  cultivated  species  are 
common,  and  the  characters  by  which  they  are  known 
are  few  and  obvious,  so  that  you  may  easily  make 
their  acquaintance.  Mustard,  horse-radish,  shep- 
herd's-purse,  turnip,  cabbage,  radish,  pepper-grass, 
cress,  and  honesty,  are  familiar  examples,  which  you 
must  often  have  observed  and  studied ;  and  I  wonder 
how  many  of  you  can  recollect  certain  characters  pe- 
culiar to  these  plants.  Procure  them,  and  confirm, 
by  direct  observation,  the  following  statements : 

The  flowers  of  this  family  of  plants  have  four 
petals,  so  placed  as  to  resemble  a  cross.  They  have 
six  stamens,  four  long  and  two  short  (Fig.  114) — tetra- 
dynamous  stamens.  Their  inflorescence  is  racemose, 
and  without  "bracts.  Any  plant  with  these  characters 
is  a  crucifer.  These  three  characters  are  alone  suffi- 
cient to  characterize  a  plant  as  cruciferous ;  but  they 
always  accompany  certain  other  traits  of  structure, 
which  you  will  discover  on  glancing  at  the  columns  of 
the  schedules  you  have  made  in  describing  them.  In 


THE  CRTTCIFEILE.  153 

each  case  there  are  four  sepals  and  four  petals.  There 
is  no  cohesion  in  any  of  these  flowers,  unless  you  ex- 
cept the  spuriously  syncarpous  pistil  (Fig.  230).  They 
are  also  without  adhesion.  I  do  not  know  how  suc- 
cessful you  may  be  in  observing  the  embryo,  but,  with 
a  good  magnifying-glass,  you  should  be  able  to  see 
that  the  radicle  is  folded  upon  the  cotyledons,  some- 
times against  their  edges,  sometimes  against  the  back 
of  one,  but  always  folded.  Now,  these  invariable 
features  are  the  ordinal  characters  of  the  cruclferse. 
You  may  identify  any  one  of  the  sixteen  hundred 
known  species  by  the  three  features  first  named,  and, 
when  you  have  done  this,  you  may  safely  infer  the 
existence  of  all  the  others.  You  are  enabled  to 
do  this  because  botanists  have  carefully  studied  and 
analyzed  these  plants,  and  in  every  case,  along  with 
a  cruciferous  corolla,  tetradynamous  stamens,  and 
bractless  inflorescence,  the  other  features  have  inva- 
riably been  found. 

I  wish  to  say  a  word  about  the  Importance  of  the 
characters  by  which  you  determine  whether  a  plant  is 
or  is  not  a  crucifer.  Some  of  you  may  think  it  strange 
that  such  features  as  the  length  of  stamens  and  the 
absence  of  bracts  should  be  named  in  describing  an 
order  of  plants.  These  points  of  structure  would  not 
be  looked  upon  as  ordinal  characters  but  for  one  cir- 
cumstance, to  be  carefully  borne  in  mind.  It  is  their 
constancy,  which  here  gives  them  value.  They  take 
rank  from  their  permanence.  Permanent  or  constant 
characters,  no  matter  how  trivial  otherwise  consid- 
ered, are  of  high  value  in  classification. 

Order  II.  of  Chart  I.  exhibits  the  characters  of 
the  cruciferse  as  here  described. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
THE    UMBELLIFERJE. 

EXERCISE  III. 
Structure  of  its  Flowers  and  Fruit. 

THE  plants  of  this  family  blossom  in  umbels.  An 
umbel,  with  its  pedicels  all  starting  from  one  point, 
like  the  rays  of  an  umbrella,  is  a  feature  of  plants  so 
striking  that  it  has  naturally  given  its  name  to  the 
group  that  bears  it.  But,  as  you  saw  that  a  plant 
blossoming  in  a  head  did  not  necessarily  belong  to 
the  composite,  so  you  are  now  to  find  that  all  umbel- 
bearing  plants  are  not,  therefore,  placed  among  um- 
belliferse.  It  has  been  found  that  certain  plants  blos- 
soming in  umbels  are  alike  in  many  other  respects, 
and  are  at  the  same  time  unlike  all  other  plants  in 
the  structure  of  their  flowers,  and  particularly  of 
their  fruit.  These  umbelliferous  plants  constitute 
the  family  we  are  about  to  examine. 

They  are  "  natives  chiefly  of  the  northern  parts 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  inhabiting  groves,  thick- 
ets, plains,  marshes,  and  waste  places.  They  appear 
to  be  extremely  rare  in  all  tropical  countries  except 
at  considerable  elevations,  where  they  gradually  in- 
crease in  number,  as  the  other  parts  of  the  vegetation 
acquire  an  extra-tropical  or  mountain  character." 

At  the  outset  let  me  warn  you  that  this  is  an  or- 
der of  plants  to  be  suspected.  Though  some  of  its 
species  are  excellent  food,  yet  some,  when  eaten,  are 


THE   UMBELLIFERJE.  155 

deadly  poisons,  as  hemlock,  water-parsnip,  and  fool's- 
parsley.  These  poisonous  species  so  strongly  resem- 
ble esculent  ones  that  only  botanists  can  distinguish 
them,  and  many  persons  have  made  the  fatal  mistake 
of  eating  their  roots.  But  the  carrot,  parsnip,  parsley, 
celery,  lovage,  caraway,  coriander,  etc.,  are  common 
cultivated  species  of  this  order,  and  none  of  the  species 
are  poison  to  the  touch. 

In  your  rambles  you  will  be  likely  to  find  a  large, 
coarse-looking,  hairy  or  woolly,  strong-scented  plant, 
three  or  four  feet  high,  which  grows  in  moist,  culti- 
vated grounds,  from  Pennsylvania  to  Labrador,  and 
west  to  Oregon.  It  has  a  thick,  furrowed  stem,  ter- 
nate  leaves,  with  large,  channelled,  clasping  petioles, 
and  blossoms  in  June,  bearing  huge  umbels,  often  a 


FIG.  309. 


foot  broad.  It  is  a  species  of  cow-parsnip,  sometimes 
called  masterwort.  Its  flowers  have  white,  deeply- 
heart-shaped  petals.  As  its  parts  are  comparatively 
large,  the  flower  of  this  plant  is  here  chosen  to  ex- 
hibit the  peculiarities  of  the  order.  In  Fig.  309  it 


156 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


is  given  in  section,  and  here  follows  its  schedule- 
description. 

SCHEDULE  TENTH. 


Organs. 

No. 

Cohesion. 

Adhesion. 

Calyx? 

Sepals. 

5 

Gamosepalous. 

Superior. 

Corolla? 
Petals. 

5 

Polypetalous. 

Epigynous. 

Stamens  ? 

5 

Pentandrous. 

Epigynous. 

Pistil  ? 
Carpels. 

2 

Syncarpous. 

Inferior. 

Seeds?                    One  in  each  carpel  —  pendulous,: 
albuminous. 

Now  look  at  an  ovary  that  has  attained  its  full 
size,  and  lost  its  petals  and  stamens.  It  has  turned 
brown,  the  furrows  on  its  sides  are  deepened,  and  it 
separates  into  two  halves,  commonly  called  seeds 
(caraway- seed,  for  example).  This  ovary  requires 
close  study.  In  Fig.  310  you  see  its  two  carpels  sus- 
pended in  a  peculiar  manner.  You  may  see  in  your 
specimen  this  slender,  forked  carpophore. 

The  fruit  of  the  umbelliferae  consists  of  two 
achenia,  called  a  cremocarp,  and  each  achenium,  or 
carpel,  is  called  a  mericarp.  The  inner  faces  of  the 
carpels,  which  are  in  contact  before  ripening,  are 
called  the  commissure. 

Fig.  311  is  a  magnified  view  of  the  back  of  a 


THE   UMBELLIFER^;. 


mericarp.  Five  ridges  are  seen  passing  from  bottom 
to  top  of  each  mericarp,  and  often  four  intermediate 
or  secondary  ones,  which  may  be,  some,  none,  or 
all  of  them,  winged.  In  the  substance  of  the  thin 
pericarp  are  little  bags  of  colored  oil,  called  vittce, 
that  give  aromatic  and  stimulating  properties  to  all 
the  plants  of  this  family.  Four  of  these  bags  are 
seen  in  Fig.  311,  in  the  intervals  of  the  ribs.  In  the 


FIG.  310. 


FIG.  811. 


FIG.  312. 


Cremocarp  of 

two  Carpels,  each 

of  which  is  a 

Mericarp. 


Mericarp. 


Cross-section  of  a  Mericarp. 


cross  -  section  of  a  mericarp  (Fig.  312)  the  little 
mouths  of  the  four  oil-bags  of  the  back  are  seen, 
along  with  two  others,  in  the  face  of  the  commissure. 
If  you  have  difficulty  in  finding  these  oil-bags,  cut 
the  carpel  across,  as  shown  in  Fig.  312,  and  look 
down  upon  it  with  your  glass,  and  perhaps  their  cut 
ends  will  be  visible  to  you.  A  thin  section,  moist- 
ened and  seen  under  a  microscope,  reveals  them  very 
distinctly. 

Collect  all  the  plants  you  can  find  with  this  kind 
of  inflorescence,  and  examine  their  flowers  and  fruit. 
In  most  cases  you  will  need  your  glass  and  much 
patience  in  doing  this ;  but,  if  you  cannot  discover 


158  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

all  the  minute  details  of  structure,  you  can,  at  least, 
tell  whether  the  fruit  of  the  plant  is  like  that  of  the 
cow-parsnip  or  not. 


EXERCISE  LIU. 
Classification  of  Umbel-bearing  Plants* 

If  you  verified  the  observations  made  in  Ex.  LIL, 
you  will  understand  the  following  description  of  the 
order  Umbelliferse : 

CALYX,  superior ;  LIMB,  obsolete,  or  entire,  or  a  five- 
toothed  border.  PETALS,  five,  mostly  with  the  point 
inflexed,  and,  along  with  the  five  STAMENS,  inserted 
on  the  outside  of  a  fleshy,  epigynous  disk  at  the  base 
of  the  two  styles.  FRUIT,  consisting  of  two  carpels, 
called  mericarps,  cohering  by  their  faces,  the  commis- 
sure separating  when  ripe,  and  suspended  from  the 
summit  by  a  prolongation  of  the  receptacle,  called  a 
carpophore-;  each  carpel  is  marked  by  five  primary 
ribs,  and  a  variable  number  of  intermediate  or  sec- 
ondary ones,  between  which  are  found  oil-tubes,  called 
wttcs,  filled  with  aromatic  oil.  SEEDS,  solitary,  ana- 
tropous,  with  minute  embryo  in  horny  albumen. 

HERBACEOUS  plants,  with  hollow,  furrowed  stems. 
LEAVES,  alternate,  mostly  compound,  usually  sheath- 
ing at  the  base  (Fig.  313).  FLOWERS,  in  umbels,  usu- 
ally compound,  often  with  involucre  and  involucels 
(Fig.  314). 

Some  of  the  plants  of  this  family  are  innocent 
and  aromatic,  others  very  poisonous. 


THE    UMBELLIFEKJE. 


159 


So,  you  see,  we  have  here  a  family  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred species,  all  blossoming  in  umbels,  and  named 


FIG.  813. 


from  this  circumstance,  and  yet  distinguished  from 
the  rest  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  by  quite  other 


FIG.  314. 


characters  than  the  inflorescence.  If  your  notion  of 
the  order  were  founded  on  its  name,  or  upon  the 
general  aspect  of  a  few  familiar  species  known  to  be- 


160  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

long  to  it,  you  would  most  likely  pronounce  an  elder- 
bush  an  umbelliferous  plant.  "You  would  find  a 
large  umbel,  a  small  umbel,  little,  white  blossoms,  an 
inferior  ovary,  and  five  stamens.  Yes,  it  must  be  an 
umbelliferous  plant.  But  look  again :  suppose  you 
take  a  flower.  In  the  first  place,  instead  of  five  dis- 
tinct petals,  you  find  a  corolla,  with  five  divisions,  it 
is  true,  but,  nevertheless,  with  all  five  joined  into  one 
piece;  now,  umbelliferous  plants  are  not  so  con- 
structed. Here,  indeed,  are  five  stamens,  but  you 
see  no  styles ;  you  see  three  stigmas  more  often  than 
two,  and  three  grains  more  often  than  two ;  but  um- 
belliferous plants  have  never  either  more  or  less  than 
two  stigmas,  nor  more  or  less  than  two  grains  to  each 
flower.  Besides,  the  fruit  of  the  elder  is  a  juicy 
berry,  while  that  of  umbelliferous  plants  is  dry  and 
hard.  The  elder,  therefore,  is  not  an  umbelliferous 
plant.  If  you  now  go  back  a  little,  and  look  more 
attentively  at  the  way  the  flowers  are  disposed,  you 
will  also  find  their  arrangement  only  in  appearance 
like  that  of  umbelliferous  plants.  The  first  rays,  in- 
stead of  setting  off  exactly  from  the  same  centre, 
arise,  some  a  little  higher  and  some  a  little  lower ; 
the  little  rays  originate  with  still  less  regularity; 
there  is  nothing  like  the  invariable  order  you  find  in 
umbelliferous  plants.  In  fact,  the  arrangement  of 
the  flowers  of  the  elder  is  a  cyme,  and  not  an  um- 
bel." 

But  you  need  not  search  for  all  the  characters 
given  in  the  foregoing  description  in  settling  the 
question  whether  a  plant  is  or  is  not  umbelliferous. 
If  it  bears  flowers  in  umbels,  and  produces  inferior 
fruit,  that  when  ripe  separates  into  two  seed-like 


THE   TJMBELLIFEK.E.  161 

bodies,  it  is  an  umbelliferous  plant.  These  simple  feat- 
ures give  precision  and  distinctness  to  the  order,  so 
that  the  study  of  minute  characters  is  only  needed  in 
separating  this  large  group  into  lesser  groups  with  a 
still  greater  number  of  like  characters  and  properties. 
The  number  and  development  of  ribs,  the  presence 
or  absence  of  vittse,  the  form  of  albumen,  etc.,  are 
used  for  this  purpose.  Hence,  although  a  beginner 
readily  separates  the  plants  of  this  order  from  all 
others,  he  finds  it  difficult  to  tell  one  genus  from 
another,  and,  till  he  acquires  skill  in  observation  and 
has  some  experience  with  this  sort  of  plants,  he  is 
quite  safe  in  looking  upon  all  of  them  with  suspicion. 
But,  if  the  pupil  desires  to  carry  his  discrimina- 
tions further,  and  to  trace  out  the  characters  of  gen- 
era and  species  contained  within  the  order,  there  is 
no  objection  to  his  doing  so,  but  he  will  require  the 
aid  of  other  works  for  the  purpose.  Complete  classi- 
fication is  the  final  object  of  botany,  and  the  present 
course  of  study  is  designed  as  an  introduction  to  it. 
If,  however,  any  students  wish  to  do  something  with 
it  as  they  go  along,  they  will  find  some  hints  that 
may  be  useful  in  the  last  exercise  of  the  volume. 

In  Order  VI.,  of  Chart  II.,  the  structure  of  um- 
belliferous plants  is  shown  in  detail.  Enlarged  sec- 
tions of  the  fruit,  with  all  its  peculiarities  of  struct- 
ure, are  represented  in  such  a  way  as  to  reveal  the 
parts  with  great  distinctness. 


CHAPTEE    X. 
THE   LABIATJE. 

EXERCISE    LIY. 
Characters  of  the  Labiatce. 

CHILDREN  who  live  in  or  visit  the  country,  and 
those  familiar  with  market-places,  know  what  mints 
are,  and  can  easily  get  peppermint,  spearmint,  catnip, 
sage,  pennyroyal,  thyme,  balm,  and  such  like  plants, 
to  illustrate  this  exercise.  Compare  your  specimens 
with  the  following  description  : 

Herbs,  with  square  stems  and  opposite  aromatic 
leaves ;  flowers,  with  a  more  or  less  two-lipped  corol- 
la, didynamous  or  diandrous  stamens  usually  with 
diverging  anthers;  ovary,  deeply  four-lobed,  on  a 
fleshy  disk,  four-celled,  each  cell  with  one  erect  ovule 
forming  in  fruit  four  little  seed -like  nutlets  or 
achenia,  around  the  base  of  the  single  style,  in  the 
bottom  of  the  persistent  calyx.  Seeds  with  little 
albumen ;  cotyledons  flat.  Stamens  inserted  on  the 
tube  of  the  corolla.  Stigma,  forked.  Flowers,  ax- 
illary, chiefly  in  cymose  clusters,  that  are  sometimes 
gathered  into  spikes  or  racemes.  Leaves,  usually 
dotted  with  glands,  containing  a  pungent,  fragrant, 
volatile  oil. 

Whenever  you  find  a  plant  that  answers  to  this 
description,  it  belongs  to  the  order  Labiatse.  The 
group  is  named  from  the  two-lipped  corolla  of  its 
flowers,  but  you  cannot  know  one  of  these  plants  by 


THE   LABIATE. 


163 


this  circumstance  alone.  There  are  many  plants  with 
labiate  flowers  that  do  not  belong  here.  There  are 
many  plants  with  square  stems,  opposite  leaves,  and 
labiate  flowers,  that  still  do  not  belong  in  this  order. 
NOT  do  you  find  in  this  list  of  characters  any  that 
may  not  be  found  elsewhere,  as  you  do  in  the  case  of 
the  fruit  of  Umbelliferse,  for  instance.  Is  it,  then, 
necessary,  in  every  case,  to  make  an  extended  and 
minute  examination  of  plants  suspected  of  being  in 
this  order  before  deciding  that  they  really  are  so? 
"We  can  best  answer  this  question  by  carefully  ob- 
serving certain  plants.  First  get  a  specimen  of  ver- 
bena, a  widely -cultivated  plant  belonging  to  the 
family  Yerbenacese,  and  compare  it  with  any  of  the 
labiate  plants  named  in  the  beginning  of  this  exer- 
cise, thus : 


The  Verbenaceaa  are  herbs  or 
shrubs  with  opposite  leaves. 

)    :.. 

More  or  less  two-lipped  or  ir- 
regular corolla. 
Didynamous  stamens. 

Two  to  four  celled  fruit,  dry, 
or  drupaceous,  usually  split- 
ting, when  ripe,  into  as  many 
one-seeded,  indehiscent  nut- 
lets. 


Seeds,  with  little  or  no  albu- 
men; the  radicle  of  the 
straight  embryo  pointing  to 
the  base  of  the  fruit. 


The  Labiatae  are  chiefly  herbs, 
with  square  stems,  opposite, 
aromatic  leaves. 

More  or  less  two-lipped  co- 
rolla. 

Didynamous  or  diandrous  sta- 
mens. 

A  deeply  four-lobed  ovary, 
which  forms  in  fruit  four 
little  seed -like  nutlets  or 
achenia  surrounding  the 
base  of  the  single  style  in 
the  bottom  of  the  persist- 
ent calyx ;  each  nutlet  filled 
with  a  single  erect  seed. 

Albumen,  mostly  none;  em- 
bryo, straight;  radicle,  at 
the  base  of  the  fruit. 


164 


THE    SECOND    BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


The  affinities  of  these  orders  are  so  strong  that,  at 
first,  one  almost  wonders  why  botanists  regard  them 
as  distinct.  But  we  remember  that  the  characters  by 
which  they  differ,  though  not  conspicuous,  are  yet 
very  important,  being  characters  of  the  essential  or- 
gans and  the  fruit.  The  deeply-lobed  ovary,  with  the 
style  growing  out  from  its  base,  and  surrounded  in 
fruit  by  the  four  nutlets,  distinctly  separates  the  two 
groups.  But  does  this  structure  of  the  ovary  distin- 
guish the  Labiatse  from  all  other  plants  ?  Let  us  see. 

There  is  a  family  of  rough,  hairy  herbs,  known  as 
borages,  with  flowers  in  cymose  clusters,  unrolling  as 
they  expand,  as  described  (page  135),  which  it  will  be 
well  to  study  with  reference  to  this  point.  One  of 
its  species,  the  forget-me-not,  is  a  common,  widely- 
diffused  plant  of  this  order,  which  you  may  get,  and 
compare  with  the  following  description  : 


The  Boraginacese  are  chiefly 
rough,  hairy  herbs,  with 
(not  aromatic)  alternate,  en- 
tire leaves. 

Symmetrical  flowers,  with  five- 
parted  calyx,  and  regular 
fiVe-lobed  corolla. 

Five  stamens  inserted  on  the 
corolla  tube. 

Ovary,  deeply  four-lobed,  the 
lobes  surrounding  the  base 
of  the  style,  and  forming  in 
fruit  four  seed-like  nutlets, 
each  with  a  single  seed. 

Albumen,  none;  cotyledons, 
plano-convex ;  radicle,  point- 
ing to  the  apex  of  the  fruit. 


The  Labiatse  are  chiefly  herbs, 
with  square  stems,  and  op- 
posite, aromatic  leaves. 

More  or  less  two-lipped  co- 
rolla. 

Didynamous  or  diandrous  sta- 
mens. 

Ovary,  deeply  four-lobed,  form- 
ing in  fruit  four  seed-like  nut- 
lets around  the  base  of  the 
single  style,  in  the  bottom 
of  the  persistent  calyx,  each 
filled  with  a  single  erect  seed. 

Albumen,  mostly  none;  em- 
bryo, straight;  radicle,  at 
the  base  of  the  fruit. 


THE   LABIATJE.  165 

Here,  then,  is  an  order  of  plants,  the  Boraginaceae, 
which  is  very  different  from  the  Labiatae,  except  in 
the  characters  of  the  ovary,  and  in  these  characters 
it  is  almost  identical  with  that  order.  You  have  in 
this  instance  an  example  of  the  puzzling  relationships 
encountered  in  classification.  The  verbenas  cannot 
be  grouped  with  the  labiates,  because,  though  won- 
derfully like  them  in  many  other  respects,  they  are 
so  unlike  in  the  characters  of  the  pistil ;  the  borages, 
though  agreeing  essentially  with  the  Labiatae  in  the 
characters  of  the  pistil,  cannot  be  classed  with  them, 
because  of  their  differences  in  so  many  other  re- 
spects. 

At  any  rate,  you  now  see  that  the  structure  of  the 
ovary  is  not  characteristic  of  the  Labiatae.  To  iden- 
tify the  members  of  this  group,  we  have  to  bear  in 
mind  several  characters,  which  you  are  prepared  to 
do  if  you  have  examined  and  compared  the  plants 
named  above.  When  you  find  a  plant  with  a  two- 
lipped  corolla,  square  stem,  and  opposite  leaves, 
joined  with  a  deeply-lobed  ovary  and  basic  style, 
you  need  not  hesitate  to  place  it  among  Labiatae. 

You  have  now  examined  a  good  many  species  of 
plants  belonging  to  four  different  natural  families — 
the  Composite,  the  Cruciferae,  the  Umbelliferse,  and 
the  Labiatae.  Can  you  tell  whether  their  leaves  are 
parallel-veined  or  net- veined  ?  Have  you  ever  seen 
a  parallel-veined  cruciferous  plant  ?  Have  composite 
plants,  as  far  as  you  know,  parallel-veined  or  net- 
veined  leaves?  Try  to  find  whether  the  leaves  in 
the  plants  of  these  orders  are  alike  in  their  venation. 

Order  XII.,  of  Chart  III.,  exhibits  the  characters 
of  the  Labiatae. 


CHAPTEK    XI. 
THE   CONIFERJE. 

EXERCISE  LV. 
Characters  of  the  Coniferce. 

THERE  is  still  another  large  group  of  widely-dis- 
tributed plants  that  must  be  specially  described. 
When  we  speak  of  evergreens,  everybody  knows 
what  we  mean,  and  thinks  of  pines,  balsams,  hem- 
locks, spruces,  cedars,  junipers,  arbor-vitaes,  or  what- 
ever species  are  most  familiar.  When  we  speak  of 
cone-bearing  trees  or  shrubs,  it  is  not  quite  the  same 
group  of  plants  that  is  thought  of,  for,  although  every- 
body knows  what  cones  are,  yet  untaught  and  unob- 
servant people  would  hardly  think  of  a  juniper-berry 
as  in  any  way  allied  to  a  cone.  But,  although  cone- 
bearing  trees  are  everywhere  to  be  found,  and  uni- 
versally known,  yet  very  few  people  can  tell  when 
they  flower,  what  sort  of  flowers  they  bear,  or  what 
a  cone  really  is ;  and  yet  their  structure  and  habits 
in  respect  to  flowering  and  fruiting  are  even  more 
remarkable  than  their  general  appearance.  They  are 
monoecious  or  dioecious,  and  blossom  in  spring.  Their 
flowers  are  in  clusters,  usually  aments,  sometimes  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  sometimes  at  the  extremi- 
ty of  the  branches.  The  fruit  is  two  years  in  ripen- 
ing, so  that  the  full-grown  cones,  seen  upon-  them  in 
summer,  were  blossoms  the  year  before. 

To  study  their  flowers,  you  must  begin  in  the 


THE 


167 


spring,  and  look  carefully  for  the  fertile  and  sterile 
aments,  which  will  usually  be  found  on  different 
branches  of  the  same  tree.  And,  while  you  are 
searching  for  their  flowers,  observe  also  their  re- 
markable foliage.  Fig.  315  shows  a  fascicle  of  nee- 
dle leaves  from  the  pine.  Observe  the  number  of 
leaves  in  each  fascicle  of  the  specimen 
you  are  studying,  for  the  species  vary 
in  this  respect.  Fig.  316  represents  the 
scale-shaped  leaves  of  arbor-vitse.  In 
evergreens  of  this  sort  observe  the  dif- 
ference between  the  foliage  on  the  older 
and  newer  parts  of  the  plant.  In  dioe- 
cious species,  observe  whether  the  foli- 


FIG.  815. 


FIG.  816. 


age  is  of  the  same  kind  on  both  <$  and  ?  plants. 
When  you  find  awl-shaped  leaves  upon  a  young 
branch,  observe  them  from  time  to  time,  and  note 
their  gradual  passage  into  scale-shaped,  imbricate 
leaves.  Do  evergreens  shed  their  foliage  ?  If  so, 


168  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

when  ?   and  how  long  does  the  foliage  last  ?  *     Can 
you  find  young  foliage  upon  old  branches  ? 

In  the  pine  the  inflorescence  of  the  sterile  flowers 
is  a  kind  of  compound  spike  (Fig.  317).  One  of  the 
spikelets  much  magnified  is  shown  in  Fig.  318.  Each 
flower  of  this  spikelet  consists  of  a  single  stamen 

FIG.  817. 


only,  and  this  stamen  has  a  most  peculiar  structure. 
Its  filament  is  so  short  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible. 
It  is  really  a  spikelet  of  anthers,  and  their  connec- 
tive. Remove  a  stamen,  and  examine  its  inner  face. 

*  To  find  whether  evergreens  shed  their  foliage,  you  have 
only  to  watch  the  ground  beneath  them  for  fallen  leaves.  If 
you  find  that  their  foliage  does  fall,  and  wish  to  learn  hy  obser- 
vation how  long  it  lasts,  notice  whether  the  twigs  of  the  pres- 
ent year  keep  their  foliage  all  through  the  coming  winter.  If 
they  do,  observe  them  again  next  summer,  and  if  it  is  still 
retained,  watch  them  the  third  season,  and  so  on. 


THE    CONIFERS. 


169 


Compare  it  with  Fig.  319,  which  is  a  $  flower  of 
the  pine.  Here  you  see  two  anther-cells  dehiscing 
vertically,  and  Fig.  320  represents  a  grain  of  the 


FIG.  318. 


FIG.  319. 


FIG.  820. 


compound  pollen  they  bear.  Seen  on  the  outside, 
this  stamen  appears  to  be  all  connective.  This  con- 
nective, or  scale,  as  it  is  usually  called,  varies  in  form 
in  different  species  of  evergreens ;  but  these  of  the 
£  catkins  of  the  pine  are  enough  like  all  the  others 
to  guide  you  in  searching  for  and  studying  them. 
When  they  have  shed  their  pollen,  they  wither  and 
disappear. 

The  $  ,  or  fertile  flowers,  are  also  clustered,  and 
appear  at  the  same  time  as  the  $  ones,  sometimes  on 
the  same,  and  sometimes  on  different  branches.  It 
is  this  $  catkin  that,  in  a  couple  of  years,  develops 
into  the  fruit  we  call  a  cone.  Fig.  321  represents  it 
when  in  flower.  The  fertile  flowers  are  very  simple 
in  structure,  each  one  consisting  of  an  open  carpel- 
lary  leaf,  or  scale.  Hitherto  you  have  always  found 
seeds  in  seed-vessels,  but  here  you  will  find  them 


170  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

borne  upon  one  side  of  a  scale,  and  hence  the  Conif- 
erae  are   said  to  be  naked-seeded.     Get  one  of  these 


FIG.  321. 


?  catkins,  and  detach  from  it  a  single  flower.     Com- 
pare it  with  Fig.  322.     Observe  the  ovules  upon  its 

FIG.  822.  FIG.  323. 


THE   CONIFERJS.  171 

inner  surface.  These  vary  in  number  and  position 
with  the  species  examined.  In  this  specimen  of  the 
pine  we  have  two  inverted  ovules,  which,  in  time, 
become  seeds.  Fig.  323  represents  a  scale  from  the 
same  kind  of  catkin  after  it  has  become  woody,  and 
the  seeds  have  ripened.  The  Ifcft  side  of  this  scale 
shows  the  cavity  from  which  one  winged  seed  has 
fallen,  while  on  the  other  side  a  seed  still  remains. 
You  may  easily  find  these  seeds  in  mature  cones  by 
breaking  them  across,  or,  what  is  better,  by  putting 
them  in  a  dry  place  for  a  day  or  two,  when  the  scales 
will  cleave  away  and  so  reveal  the  seeds  within. 

In  some  evergreens,  as  arbor-vitse  and  white  cedar, 
when  you  examine  the  small  terminal  catkins,  you 
will  find  the  <3  ones  composed  of  several  scales  or 
flowers,  each  scale  bearing  two  to  four  anther-cells  on 
the  lower  margin  (Fig.  324),  while  the  globular  $ 

FIG.  324. 


catkins  consist  of  four  rows  of  scales,  each  scale  or 
flower  bearing  one  or  several  erect,  bottle-shaped 
ovules  at  the  base  (Fig.  325).  The  developed  cone 
of  the  white  cedar  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  pea,  with 
scales  firmly  closed,  but  opening  at  maturity. 

The  juniper  or  red-cedar,  common  on  dry,  sterile, 
rocky  hills,  both  northward  and  southward,  blossoms 


172  THE    SECOND   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

in  April.  The  various  species  are  mostly  dioecious, 
and  the  catkins  are  very  small.  Observed  only  when 
in  fruit,  you  would  scarcely  regard  the  juniper  as  a 
coniferous  plant,  but  the  $  catkin,  when  in  flower,  is 
seen  to  consist  of  from  three  to  six  scales,  bearing  a 
variable  number  of  ovules  precisely  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  pine.  But,  in  ripening,  these  scales  grow 
together,  turn  purple,  and  form  a  berry-like  fruit  as 

FIG.  826.  FIG.  827.  FIG.  828. 


large  as  a  pea.  Fig.  326  represents  one  of  these 
berries  with  its  scaly  bracts  underneath,  while  Fig. 
327  shows  one  of  its  enlarged  bony  seeds.  The  ber- 
ries ripen  the  second  year  from  the  flower. 

The  ground-hemlock  is  another  coniferous  plant 
with  a  berry-like  fruit.  Its  ?  flower  is  more  simple 
than  those  we  have  been  examining,  for  it  consists  of 
a  single  ovule,  without  even  an  accompanying  scale. 
This  straggling  bush,  two  or  three  feet  high,  is  found 
in  shady  places,  along  streams,  on  thin,  rocky  soils, 
from  Canada  to  Pennsylvania  and  Kentucky,  and 
south  along  the  Alleghanies.  Its  linear  leaves  are 
nearly  an  inch  in  length,  in  two  opposite  rows,  along 
the  branches.  It  blossoms  in  April.  Fig.  328  repre- 


THE   CONIFERS. 


ITS 


sents  its  axillary  $  inflorescence,  consisting  of  six 
scale-like  connectives,  bearing  the  anther-cells  on 
their  inner  faces.  Fig.  329  represents  its  solitary 
fertile  flower.  You  see  it  is  a  single,  erect,  sessile 
ovule,  surrounded  by  scaly  bracts.  At  its  base  is  a 
cup-shaped  disk,  that  becomes  pulpy,  red,  and  berry- 
like,  as  the  ovule  ripens  and  turns  black.  Fig.  330 
represents  a  vertical  section  of  this  fruit. 


FIG. 


Fm.  830. 


FIG.  831. 


The  embryo  of  a  coniferous  seed  is  shown  in 
Fig.  331.  It  is  said  to  be  polycotyledonous. 

The  lower  half  of  Chart  IY.  is  devoted  to  the 
Coniferse.  Examples  of  the  leading  genera  of  this 
order  are  given,  showing  the  foliage,  fruit,  and  seed, 
the  latter  much  magnified,  and  all  colored  from  Na- 
ture. 


CHAPTEK    XII. 
THE  ORCHIDACEJE. 

EXERCISE  LVI. 
Characters  of  the  Orchidacece. 

THERE  is  a  widely-distributed  and  well-known 
plant,  with  showy  flowers,  blossoming  in  early  sum- 
mer, and  called  the  lady's  slipper,  or  sometimes  the 
moccasin-flower  (Fig.  332).  It  is  an  orchid ;  and, 
though  unlike  other  orchids  in  some  respects,  it  has 
the  chief  traits  of  the  order  to  which  it  belongs. 

Provide  yourself  with  some  of  these  plants,  and 
compare  them  with  the  following  description  :  Herbs 
with  parallel-veined  leaves  and  irregular  flowers. 
Perianth  of  six  parts  in  two  sets;  the  three  outer 
ones  nearly  alike,  and  petaloid  in  structure  and  ap- 
pearance ;  the  three  inner  ones  unlike.  One  of  these, 
differing  much  in  shape  and  direction  from  the  others, 
is  called  the  Up.  In  Fig.  332  the  lip  is  the  sac  or  slip- 
per, which  gives  the  plant  its  common  name.  The  lip 
varies  much  in  different  orchids,  but  in  all  its  appear- 
ance is  singular  and  striking.  It  is  seen  spurred  and 
lobed,  and  assumes  many  fantastic  forms. 

Examine,  now,  the  stamens  and  pistil  of  your 
flower.  Lift  up  the  little,  drooping  organ  opposite 
the  lip,  and  compare  the  structure  beneath  with  Fig. 
333.  You  have  here  the  stamens  and  pistil  consoli- 
dated into  one  organ,  and  known  as  the  column.  The 


THE   ORCHIDACEJ5. 


1T5 


fertile  anthers  are  shown  at  #,  #,  while  a  sterile  sta- 
men back  of  the  stigma  is  marked  st.  The  stigma  is 
marked  stig.  The  fertile  anthers  are  sessile  upon  the 
style.  In  most  orchids  there  is  but  one  anther,  which 


FIG.  832. 


Stiff- 


1Y6 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


is  fertile,  and  placed  behind  the  stigma,  in  the  position 
of  the  sterile  stamen  of  the  lady's-slipper.  Examine 
the  pollen.  Instead  of  being  dry  and  powdery,  you 
find  it  pulpy-granular.  In  many  orchids  it  coheres 
into  coarse  grains,  held  together  in  one  mass  by  cob- 
webby tissue,  and  known  aspollinia  (Fig.  334).  You 
find  just  such  pollen  masses,  or  pollinia,  in  the  gy- 

FIG.  334.  FHJ.  835. 


nandrous  stamens  of  the  milk-weed  (Fig.  335).  The 
ovary  of  the  lady's-slipper  is  inferior,  forming  in  fruit 
a  one-celled  pod,  with  innumerable  minute  seeds  borne 
on  parietal  placentae.  In  some  orchids  you  find  it  so 
twisted  as  to  alter  the  position  of  the  petals. 

The  characters  of  the  Orchidacese  will  be  better 
understood  by  comparing  them  with  other  groups  of 
parallel-leaved  plants.  Provide  yourself  with  lilies 
of  any  sort,  and  specimens  of  blue-flag,  or  flower-de- 
luce.  Compare  your  lilies  with  the  following  de- 
scription : 

Herbs  with  simple,  sheathing  or  clasping,  parallel- 
veined  leaves.  Flowers  regular,  perfect.  Perianth 


THE  ORCHIDACE^E.  177 

of  six  parts  in  two  circles  of  similar  color  and  form. 
Stamens  six,  inserted  on  the  leaves  of  the  perianth ; 
anthers  introrse.  Ovary  free,  three-celled,  with  nu- 
merous ovules  on  axile  placentas ;  the  styles  united 
into  one. 

What  number  have  you  found  prevailing  in  the 
lilies  you  have  examined?  What  number  occurred 
oftenest  in  describing  the  Composite?  The  Labi- 
atse?  The  Umbelliferse  ?  The  Cruciferse?  Point 
out  the  affinities  of  the  lady's-slipper  and  the  lily. 

Compare  flower-de-luce,  or  blue-flag,  with  the  fol- 
lowing description : 

Herbs  with  parallel-veined,  equitant,  two-ranked 
leaves  and  perfect  flowers.  Tube  of  the  perianth  co- 
herent with  the  three-celled  ovary;  limb  petal -like 
and  six-parted ;  convolute  in  the  bud  in  two  sets. 
Stamens  three,  monadelphous  or  distinct,  with  ex- 
trorse  anthers.  Pod  three-celled,  locolucidal,  many- 
seeded. 

What  affinities  can  you  point  out  between  the 
flower-de-luce  and  lily?  between  the  lady's-slipper 
and  flower-de-luce  ?  In  what  respect  are  these  three 
plants  alike  ? 

The  nature  of  orchids  will  be  further  explained 
in  Course  Second. 

On  Chart  Y.  several  orders  of  parallel-leaved 
plants  are  given,  and  their  characters  are  so  magni- 
fied that  they  may  be  easily  seen  and  compared. 


CHAPTEE    XIII. 
THE   GRAMINEJE. 

EXERCISE  LYII. 
Characters  of  the  Graminece. 

THERE  is  a  large  group  of  plants  blossoming  in 
peculiar-looking  spikes,  heads,  and  panicles,  the  flow- 
ers of  which  are  furnished  with  green  or  brown  scales, 
called  glumes,  whence  the  entire  group  is  known  as 
the  Glumacese.  They  constitute  a  twelfth  part  of  the 
described  species  of  flowering  plants,  and  at  least 
nine-tenths  of  the  individuals  composing  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  world.  They  grow  everywhere.  All 
grasses  and  all  the  cultivated  crops  of  grain  belong 
among  them,  besides  many  other  plants  not  so  im- 
portant to  man.  They  have  true  flowers,  but  no 
calyx  or  corolla.  The  Glumacese  are  divided  into  two 
groups ;  one  group — the  sedges — having  solid  stems, 
while  the  other — the  grasses — has  hollow  stems.  The 
flowers  of  both  these  groups  have  a  special  structure, 
which  your  previous  study  will  not  enable  you  to 
understand. 

From  this  large  class  we  will  select  examples 
that  belong  to  the  family  of  grasses  or  Gramineae, 
the  members  of  which  have  hollow  stems,  and  the 
sheaths  of  their  ligulate  leaves  are  spit  in  front. 

Gather  specimens  of  wheat,  if  possible,  in  bios- 


THE   GKAMINE^E, 


179 


soming-time,  when  the  stamens  are  to  be  seen  (Fig. 

336).  Along  the  rachis  are  rows  of  peculiar-looking 
bundles.  The  number  of  these  rows 
varies-  in  different  kinds  of  wheat. 
Break  the  spike  at  about  the  middle, 
and  take  off  a  bundle  from  the  top 
of  the  lower  half.  Observe  whether 
it  is  attached  by  its  side  or  its  end, 
and  whether  any  of  its  scales  adhere 
to  the  rachis  either  wholly  or  in  part. 

FIG.  337. 


Remove  the  first  two  of  these 
scales :  there  is  no  trace  of  either 
pistil  or  stamens  within  them.  They 
are  quite  empty.  What  do  you  find 
next?  Are  there  not  two  or  three 
separate  flowers  forming  a  sort  of 
spikelet  within  these  two  outer  scales 
(Fig.  337)  ?  Examine  one  of  them. 

In  Fig.  338  a  single  flower  is 
shown,  with  the  two  glumes  found  at  the  base  of  the 
spikelet,  and  called  the  lower  and  upper  glumes.  What 
remain  are  the  parts  of  a  single  flower.  Beginning 


180 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


with  the  outermost  of  these  at  the  right,  you  see  a 
scale  called  the  outer  palet.     Does  the  outer  palet, 


FIG.  338. 


Inner  Palet. 


Upper  Glume. 


Pistil. 


Stamens. 

_,  Lodicules. 


Outer  Palet. 


Lower  Glume. 


FIG.  339. 


in  the  specimen  you  are  studying,  terminate  in  a 

bristle  ? 

At  the  right  you  see  a  pecul- 
iar scale,  folded  at  the  sides,  and 
called  &  palet.  Then  come  the  scales. 
Look  carefully  at  your  flower  for 
these  minute  bodies,  which  are 
thought  to  be  a  sort  of  perianth,  the 
outer  and  inner  scales  being  of  the 
nature  of  bracts.  "We  next  come 
upon  the  stamens,  with  their  versa- 
tile anthers,  and  the  pistil,  with  its 
plumose  stigmas — the  unmistakable 
flower.  The  peculiar  features  of  this 
inflorescence,  then,  are — 


THE   GEAMLNE^E.  181 

GLUMES. — Scales  of  the  spikelet,  and  exterior 
scales  of  the  flower. 

PALETS. — Chaffy,  inner  scales  of  the  flower. 

AWN. — The  beard  or  bristle  of  a  scale. 

SQUAMULA. — One  of  the  minute  scales  at  the  base 
of  the  ovary  of  grasses. 

The  following  questions,  which  form  a  schedule 
for  this  group  of  plants,  are  answered  as  if  asked 
concerning  Figs.  336'and  338: 

Inflorescence  ?  Spike. 

Glumes  ?  2. 

Outer  palet  ?  1. 

Inner  palet  ?  1. 

Lodicules  ?  2. 

Stamens  ?  3. 

Styles  ?  2. 

Answer  these  questions  in  regard  to  the  heads  of 
barley  and  rye.  Compare  the  culm*  and  leaves  of 
these  plants  with  those  of  wheat. 

Compare  a  plant  of  Indian-corn,  when  in  blossom, 
with  the  following  description :  $  flowers  in  a  ter- 
minal panicle  of  racemes  known  as  the  tassel ;  spike- 
lets  two-flowered ;  glumes  herbaceous,  palets  membra- 
nous ;  anthers  three,  linear.  ?  flowers  in  an  axillary 
spike,  partially  imbedded  in  the  rachis,  known  as  the 
cob,  the  bracts  forming  its  spathe  being  the  husks ; 
lower  flower  of  each  spikelet  consisting  of  two  palets, 
abortive;  glume  broad,  thick,  membranous,  obtuse; 
styles,  very  long,  filiform,  exserted  and  pendulous, 

*  Oulm :  a  straw ;  the  stem  of  grasses  and  sedges. 


182 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF    BOTANY. 


forming  the  silk;  kernels  in  eight,  ten,  twelve,  or 
some  even  number  of  rows. 

Gather  a  plant  of  the  oat  in  blossoming-time, 
and  compare  it  with  Figs.  340  and  341.  Remember 
that  the  outer  glumes  belong  to  the  spikelet,  and  not 
to  the  flower.  Look  out  for  sterile  flowers  below  or 
above  the  perfect  ones. 

FIG.  840. 


THE 


183 


Compare  the  culm,  leaves,  and  stipules  of  the  oat 
with  those  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley. 


FIG.  341. 


Outer  Palet. 


Lower  Glume.  ~ 


Upper  Glume. 


FIG.  842. 


In  Fig.  342  are  seen  the  palet,  squa- 
mulae,  stamens,  and  pistil.  The  oat  may 
be  thus  described : 


Inflorescence  ? 

Panicle. 

Glumes  ? 

2. 

Outer  palet  ? 

1. 

Palet? 

1. 

Lodicules  ? 

2. 

Stamens  ? 

3. 

Styles? 

2. 

CHAPTER   XIV. 
FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 


EXERCISE    LVIII. 
Ferns. 


You  have  often  seen  dense,  green  patches  of  plants, 
more  or  less  resembling  Fig.  343,  and  called  brakes, 


FIG.  843. 


FIG.  344. 


or  ferns.     They  seem,  when  growing,  to  be  all  leaf 
and  no  stem ;  but  you  see  in  the  figure  that  the  stem 


FLOWEKLESS   PLANTS. 


185 


is  a  short,  -underground  rhizoma.  In  some  ferns 
the  rhizoma  takes  a  vertical  direction,  and  bears  a 
whorl  or  tuft  of  foliage  at  the  top.  Here  it  gives  off 
single  leaves  as  it  advances.  Although,  in  our  cli- 
mate, the  stems  of  ferns  are  found  creeping  under- 
ground, yet  in  the  warm  climates  of  the  tropics  they 
rise  in  the  air,  sometimes  forming  trees,  forty  or  fifty 
feet  in  height. 

Did  you  ever  see  any  flowers  upon  this  sort 
of  plant  ?  any  thing  that  looked  like  fruit  ?  Since 
studying  the  Coniferae,  you  are  aware  how  very 
simple  and  obscure  flowers  may  become,  and  you 
will,  of  course,  look  very  carefully  at  a  plant  before 
deciding  that  it  has  none.  Gather  as  many  kinds 
of  ferns  as  you  can  find,  and  search  for  the  seed- 
bearing  portions.  Meantime  you  can  learn  the 
terms  by  which  their  parts  are  distinguished.  They 
are  the  following : 

The  leaf  of  a  fern  is  called  a  frond.  The  stalk 
or  petiole  of  a  frond  is  called  a  stipe.  Point  out  the 

FIG.  846. 


frond  and  stipe  in  the  specimens  you  have  gathered. 
The  lobes  of  a  frond  are  called  pinnce  (Fig,  344). 
Subdivisions  of  pinnae  are  called  pinnules  (Fig.  346). 


186 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


Point  out  the  pinnae  in  your  specimens.  Have  you 
found  any  in  which  the  pinnae  are  divided  or  lobed 
by  pinnules?  Observe  the  differences  of  stipe  in 
your  specimens.  What  kind  of  soil  did  you  find 
them  in?  Were  they  growing  in  shady  or  sunny 
places  ?  Did  you  observe  the  way  the  young  fronds 
were  folded  in  the  bud  ? 


EXEECISE  LIX. 
Reproduction  of  Ferns. 

Did  you  find  any  thing  that  you  could  fancy  to 
be  a  flower,  in  your  examination  of  ferns?  Look 
them  over  once  more  on  all  sides,  and  note  all  ap- 
pearances that  are  repeated  on  different  specimens. 
Observe  carefully  the  under  side  of  the  frond,  along 
the  veins  and  the  margin.  Do  you  not  anywhere 
find  little  brown  patches  resembling  the  spots  seen  in 
Fig.  344,  representing  magnified  pinnae,  or  the  pin- 
nules of  Fig.  346  ?  In  Figs.  347  and  348  you  see 


Fia.  347. 


FIG.  848. 


FLOWERLESS   PLANTS. 


187 


FIG.  349. 


how  these  spots  may  be  concealed  under  folds  of  the 
margin  of  fronds. 

These  brown  patches  certainly  look  very  little 
like  flowers.  Examine  them  never  so  carefully  with 
your  microscope,  you  will  not 
find  stamens  or  pistils.  And 
yet  these  little  brown  patches  an- 
swer, in  a  certain  way,  to  seeds. 
It  is  from  them  that  new  ferns 
arise.  They  are  the  reproduc- 
tive parts  of  this  class  of  plants, 
and  the  fronds  that  bear  them 
are  said  to  be  fertile.  Examine 
these  spots  carefully  with  your 
magnifying -glass,  and  compare 
them  with  Fig.  345  or  Fig.  349. 
The  small,  brownish  clusters  of 
fruit-dots  seen  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  fronds,  in  rows  along  the  veins,  or  on  the 
margin  of  the  pinnae,  are  called  sori,  and  a  single 


FIG.  350. 


FIG.  851. 


cluster  a  sorus.      The  scale  or  protective   covering 
of  a  sorus,  seen  in  Fig.  349,  but  absent  in  Fig.  345, 


188  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

is   called   an   indusium.     This   organ   is  still  more 
plainly  seen  in  Fig.  350. 

In  the  sorus  (Fig.  350)  you  see  little,  peculiar- 
looking  bodies  escaping  from  beneath  the  indusium. 
Each  of  these  cell-like  bodies,  of  which  the  sorus 
is  composed,  is  known  as  a  spore-case^  sporange,  or 
theca.  They  are  sometimes  stalked,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
351.  The  singular-looking  band  around  them  is  an 
elastic  membrane,  which  bursts  when  they  are  ma- 
ture, and  thus  the  spores  contained  in  the  spore-case 
escape  (Fig.  351).  It  is  from  spores  that  ferns  arise, 
but  by  a  process  more  like  budding  than  like  the 
sprouting  of  a  seed.  When  a  spore  commences  to 
grow,  appearances  like  those  represented  in  Fig.  352 


may  be  observed.  The  growth  begun  by  a  spore, 
as  at  #,  and  seen  more  advanced  at  5,  is  shown, 
at  <?,  expanded  into  a  leaf-like  body,  called  a  pro- 
thallus,  which  gives  off  roots  at  the  under  surface. 
Among  these  roots  may  be  found  certain  bodies, 
analogous  to  the  stamens  and  pistils  of  flowers,  and 
called  the  antheridia  and  pistillidia.  It  is  not  until 
these  bodies  have  matured  and  done  their  work  that 
the  young  fern  appears.  If  there  is  any  thing  like 


FLOWEKLESS    PLANTS.  189 

flowering  in  the  history  of  ferns,  it  is  the  prothallus 
produced  from  the  spore  that  bears  the  flowers,  and 
from  these  produces  the  young  fern  as  seen  at  s,  and 
the  same,  still  more  developed,  at  t.  It  would  be 
very  absurd  to  regard  the  spore  as  seed-like  when  it 
produces  the  flower,  instead  of  being  produced  by  it. 
This  matter  will  be  more  fully  explained  in  Course 
Second. 


EXERCISE  LX. 
Mosses. 

In  place  of  flowers,  mosses  have  antheridia  and 
pistillidia.  These  plants  may  be  either  monoecious 
or  dioecious.  Fig.  353  represents  a  moss  having  its 
antheridia  and  pistillidia  on  different  plants. 

At  a  you  notice  a  moss-plant  with  sessile  leaves  and 
unbranched  stem,  ending  in  a  sort  of  rosette,  which 
is  seen  in  section  at  5,  where  you  may  observe  the 
peculiar  cylindrical  bodies  growing  among  the  leaves. 
These  are  antheridia.  One  of  these  bodies,  detached 
and  much  magnified,  is  seen  at  o.  The  stalk-like 
bodies  accompanying  the  antheridia  (A)  are  called 
paraphyses.  They  are  not  well  understood,  but 
are  thought  to  be  abortive  states  of  the  antheridia. 
At  first  these  little  organs  contain  mucilage,  but, 
when  mature,  their  contents,  seen  escaping  at  <?,  are 
granular,  and  each  of  the  little  ejected  cellules  sets 
free  an  active  antherozoid.  (See  page  259.)  Some- 
times the  leaves  that  surround  the  antheridia  grow 
together  into  a  kind  of  cap  called  a  perigone,  and  in 


190 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


monoecious  mosses,  the  antheridia  and  pistillidia  are 
often  found  within  the  same  perigone. 


FIG.  853. 


The  arehegone  or  pistillidia  of  mosses  also  arise 
in  clusters  of  leaves,  and  are  cell-like  bodies,  having 


FLOWEELESS   PLANTS.  191 

a  cap  or  epigone  of  the  same  nature  as  the  perigone 
of  antheridia.  But  the  pistillidia  bursts  its  cap, 
leaving  part  of  it  as  a  sheath  below,  and  is  carried 
up  on  a  stalk  (<$),  at  the  top  of  which  is  seen  an  urn- 
shaped  body  of  curious  structure,  called  a  sporange  (e). 

SETA. — The  stalk  of  a  sporange  (d). 

VAGENULE. — The  collar  or  sheath  at  the  base  of 
£he  seta,  resulting  from  the  bursting  of  the  epigone. 

CALYPTRA. — The  cap  or  hood  of  a  sporange,  shown 
at  fj  and  seen  in  place  at  e. 

OPEECULTJM. — The  lid  of  the  sporange  (g\  seen 
when  the  calyptra  is  removed. 

PERISTOME. — A  single  or  double  fringe  of  teeth 
around  the  mouth  of  a  sporange.  It  is  sometimes 
altogether  absent.  These  teeth  vary  very  much  in 
number,  but  are  always  either  four  or  some  multiple 
of  four. 

ANNTJLTJS. — An  elastic  ring  sometimes  found  in 
the  mouth  of  a  sporange. 

SPOEES. — The  ripened  contents  of  the  sporange. 


EXERCISE  LXI. 
Fungi. 

The  common  mushroom,  or  toadstool,  as  children 
call  it,  is  a  well-known  example  of  this  group  of 
flowerless  plants.  It  is  found  everywhere  growing 
upon  decaying  organic  matter.  If,  in  gathering 
specimens  for  study,  you  break  them  off  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  you  will  leave  the  plant  itself 


192  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF    BOTANY. 

behind,  and  bring  only  the  fruit.  The  part  concealed 
in  the  rich  mould,  or  spread  on  its  surface,  is  a  tangled 
mass  of  filaments  that  you  might  mistake  for  fibrous 
roots ;  but  it  answers  to  the  root,  stem,  and  leaves  of 
higher  plants.  This  portion  of  the  plant  is  called  the 
mycelium,  represented  by  the  root-like  fibrous  portion 
of  Fig.  354. 

FIG.  35t 


When  you  are  looking  for  the  mycelium  of  mush- 
rooms, observe  the  young  fruit  just  appearing  above 
the  surface.  You  may  often  find  it  in  clusters,  in 
all  stages  of  growth,  in  rich  mould,  or  on  decayed 
logs  or  stumps. 

Fig.  354  represents  a  full-grown  mushroom  and 
several  younger  ones  at  different  periods  of  devel- 
opment. The  younger  ones  are  smooth,  globular 
masses,  but,  as  they  get  larger,  the  outer  wrappage 
breaks,  as  you  see  at  the  right  in  the  figure,  and  re- 
veals a  stem  with  an  umbrella-like  cap.  The  ring 
around  the  stalk,  seen  in  the  full-grown  specimen, 
shows  where  this  covering,  called  the  volva,  was  at- 
tached. The  stout  stem  is  called  a  stipe,  and  its  cap 
the  pileus.  Along  the  under  surface  of  the  pileus 
you  see  numerous  thin  plates,  called  gills,  and  it  is 


FLOWEELESS    PLANTS.  193 

within  these  plates  that  the  spores  are  found,  many 
thousands  occurring  on  the  gills  of  a  single  mush- 
room. 

Puff-balls  are  mushrooms  without  the  stem  and 
pileus.  The  "  smoke  "  which  escapes  when  they  are 
broken  consists  of  spores,  which  are  so  exceedingly 
small  that  they  may  penetrate  everywhere.  A  few 
species  of  fungi  are  good  to  eat,  but  many  are  poison- 
ous, and  to  be  avoided.  Yeast,  mildew,  smut,  mould, 
and  dry  rot,  all  belong  to  this  group  of  plants. 

FIG.  855. 


The  gray,  yellow,  or  greenish,  crust-like  layers 
that  are  seen  on  stones  and  the  bark  of  trees,  on 
old  walls,  and  in  rocky  places,  are  a  low  form  of 
vegetation,  called  lichens.  They  have  little  distinc- 
tion of  parts,  except  that  of  upper  and  under  surface, 
and  certain  specialized  places  in  which  spores  are 
formed.  Algce,  or  the  sea-weed  family,  is  another 
order  of  flowerless  plants,  which  contains  many  fresh- 
water species.  The  green  scum  seen  on  the  surface 
of  stagnant  water  is  one  of  the  lowest  forms  of  fresh- 
water algae,  called  conferva. 


OOUESE   SECOND. 

VEGETABLE  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


THAT  branch  of  the  science  of  botany  with  which 
you  have  been  thus  far  occupied  is  called  Organogra- 
phy,  which  describes  the  external  parts  of  plants  in 
respect  to  their  forms.  You  are  now  to  take  up  the 
study  of  vegetable  anatomy,  or  the  minute  structure 
of  plants  as  revealed  by  the  microscope.  These  two 
departments  of  the  science  constitute  structural  bot- 
any, in  which  the  plant  is  regarded  without  reference 
to  its  activities.  The  study  of  the  plant  in  action, 
or  vegetable  physiology,  will  conclude  the  volume. 

To  study  the  internal  parts  of  plants  by  direct 
observation  you  must  have  a  microscope  that  will 
magnify  from  forty  to  eighty  diameters.  You  may 
read  descriptions,  and  see  pictures  of  cells,  fibres,  and 
vessels,  and  their  relations  in  the  living  structure,  and 
so  get  an  idea  of  the  subject,  which  is  better  than  none 
at  all ;  but  knowledge  so  gained  is  very  imperfect,  from 
its  vagueness  and  want  of  reality.  Besides,  when 
statements  are  taken  at  second-hand,  the  learner  loses 
the  educational  effect  of  search  and  discovery,  and 
has  not  the  interest  or  enthusiasm  which  is  awakened 
by  impressions  of  the  things  themselves. 


CHAPTEE    XY. 
THE   INTERNAL  STRUCTURES   OF  PLANTS. 

EXERCISE  LXII. 
Cells  and  Cellular  Tissue. 

ORDINARY  plants  differ  so  little  in  their  inner 
structure,  that  almost  any  specimen  will  furnish  you 
with  examples  of  cells  and  tissues ;  but  these  ele- 
ments are  more  conspicuous  in  some  parts  of  plants 
than  in  others.  For  instance,  make  a  thin  cross-sec- 
tion of  the  pith  of  elder,  or,  if  you  cannot  get  this, 
of  the  pith  of  any  young  twig.  A  sharp,  thin-bladed 
knife,  and  some  practice,  are  needed  to  make  the 
slice  so  thin  that  it  will  distinctly  show  the  structure. 
Put  the  slice  upon  the  slip  of  glass  provided  for  the 
purpose,  and  add  to  it  a  drop  of  water.  Place  over 

FIG.  356. 


it  a  thin  glass  cover,  which  must  first  be  permitted 
to  rest  on  one  edge,  and  then  be  slipped  down  care- 
fully to  push  out  air-bubbles.  Under  the  microscope 
the  slice  presents  an  appearance  like  Fig.  356. 


196  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

In  the  same  way  prepare  and  examine  slices  of 
melon,  potato,  cabbage-stalk,  apple,  orange-pulp,  or 
any  ripe  fruit,  or  succulent  stem,  or  young,  growing 
shoot. 

Take  a  little  of  the  pulp  of  boiled  rhubarb  on  the 
end  of  a  needle,  and  put  it  upon  a  slip  of  glass,  add- 
ing a  drop  of  water.  Under  the  microscope  you  will 
again  see  just  such  appearances  as  were  presented  by 
the  elder.  Place  thin  petals  under  the  microscope, 
and  observe  their  structure. 

These  walled  spaces,  of  varying  shape,  and  of 
about  the  same  diameter  in  all  directions,  are  called 
cells,  and  the  mass  of  substance  they  form  by  their 
union  is  cellular  tissue. 

Cells  consist  of  an  outer  membrane,  or  wall,  that 
contains  various  liquid,  semi-liquid,  and  solid  matters. 
They  vary  much  in  size.  The  largest  cells  of  the 
pith  are  -^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  though  a  cell 
•2^5-  of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  a  very  large  one.  Those 
of  ordinary  cellular  tissue  are  about  ^J-g-  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  The  very  smallest  vegetable  cells  are 
from  ^Vfr  to  -g-gVn-  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
shape  of  the  cells  of  cellular  tissue  depends  upon  the 
pressure  around  them.  When  there  is  no  pressure, 
they  are  round,  or  egg-shaped ;  but,  if  they  crowd 
each  other  as  growth  goes  on,  they  become  many- 
sided,  or  polyhedric. 

Cellular  tissue  is  said  to  be  regular  when  its  cells 
are  cubical;  prismatic,  when  they  are  elongated; 
tabular,  when  they  are  flattened ;  and  muriform^ 
whjen  they  look  like  courses  of  brick  in  a  wall.  All 
cellular  tissue,  whatever  the  form  of  the  cells,  is 
called  parenchyma. 


THE   INTERNAL   STRUCTURES   OF   PLANTS.  197 

When  the  cells  of  cellular  tissue,  or  parenchyma, 
are  crowded,  they  may  fit  exactly  against  each  other, 
and  leave  no  unoccupied  spaces  (Fig.  357).  We  have 
then  complete  parenchyma. 

When  the  walls  of  cellular  tissue  are  round,  so 
that  spaces  are  left  between  the  points  of  contact 

FIG.  857.  FIG.  858. 


(Fig.  358),  the  tissue  is  called  incomplete  parenchyma. 
The  spaces  between  the  cells  in  incomplete  paren- 
chyma are  called  intercellular  spaces.  Lacunes  are 
formed  when  an  intercellular  space  is  produced  by 
the  destruction  of  cells  from  any  cause. 


EXERCISE  LXIII. 
Structure  and  Production  of  Cells. 

EXPERIMENT. — Apply  a  weak  tincture  of  iodine  to 
a  little  of  the  green  tissue  of  a  leaf,  or  other  succu- 
lent vegetable  matter.  The  contents  of  the  cells  are 
first  colored  brown^and  presently  they  shrink  away 


198 


THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 


from  the  cell-wall,  forming  a  mass  in  the  interior,  as 
shown  at  a  (Fig.  359).  Or  you  may  get  the  same  re- 
sult without  discoloring  the  cell-contents,  by  placing 
the  green  tissue  or  pulp  of  fruits,  or  leaves  of  mosses, 
in  dilute  nitric  or  muriatic  acid. 

Take,  with  care,  a  bit  of  the  skin  from  a  vigorous, 
hairy  leaf,  as  the  nettle.  Put  it  upon  the  glass  slide 
with  a  drop  of  water,  and  examine  the  appearance  of 
the  hairs  under  the  microscope.  Each  hair,  you  see, 
is  a  leaf-cell  grown  out  into  the  air.  Now  drop  upon 

FIG.  359. 


it  spirit  of  wine,  or  something  that  will  kill  the  cell, 
and,  after  a  time,  the  cell-contents  will  separate  from 
the  cell-wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  359. 

As  to  the  cell-wall,  it  is  at  first  a  moist,  soft,  thin, 
uniform  membrane,  which  allows  the  free  passage  of 
water  through  its  substance;  but  usually  a  second 
membrane  appears,  lining  it  on  the  inside,  though  it 
does  not  form  a  complete  and  continuous  lining.  It 
is  broken  in  many  places,  making  the  cell- wall  thick 


THE   INTERNAL    STRUCTURES   OF   PLANTS.  199 

here  and  thin  there.  As  the  cell  grows  older  its  wall 
thus  increases  in  thickness  and  density,  and  often  by 
these  changes  opposes  the  passage  of  water  through 
it. 

Under  the  most  powerful  microscopes,  no  appear- 
ance of  porosity  is  seen  in  the  primitive  cell- wall. 
But  the  breaks  of  its  lining  membrane  make  it  thin 
in  some  places  and  thick  in  others,  and  these  broken 
places  appear  as  markings  on  the  wall.  When  they 
are  minute  and  frequent,  the  cell-wall  looks  dotted, 
and  such  cells  are  called  dotted  cells  (Fig.  360). 

FIG.  360.  FIG.  361.  FIG.  362. 


"When  the  breaks  are  little  slits,  or  bars  (Fig.  361), 
we  have  what  are  called,  fenestrated  cells. 

"When  the  internal  membrane  breaks  up  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  resulting  fragments  take  on 
various  shapes  of  bands,  rings,  and  spiral  markings, 
and  so  form  what  are  called  reticulated,  annular,  and 
spiral  cells  (Fig.  362). 

In  most  cells  that  enter  into  t^ie  permanent  sub- 
stance of  a  plant,  the  cell-wall  continues  to  thicken 
long  after  it  has  ceased  to  enlarge.  Sometimes  a 
third  and  even  a  fourth  layer  is  developed  within  the 
cell.  These  layers  are  generally  moulded  exactly 
upon  the  others,  so  that  the  thin  places  remain,  and 
the  thick  grow  thicker. 


200  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

But  the  life  of  the  cell  is  not  in  its  membranous 
wall,  which  is  rather  a  skeleton,  or  framework,  for 
the  support  of  the  vital  parts. 

That  portion  of  the  cell-contents  which  lies  next 
the  cell-wall  is  a  semi-fluid,  turbid  substance,  always 
present  in  young,  growing  cells,  and  such  as  are  re- 
producing other  cells,  or  doing  work  of  any  kind. 
The  name  of  this  substance  is  protoplasm,  and  it  is 
found  wherever  there  is  life.     It  is  not  a  membrane, 
but     a    mucilaginous     substance, 
FIG.  sea.  which  moulds  itself  upon  the  cell- 

wall,  is  flexible,  ductile,  and  not 
unlike  the  condition  of  glass  at 
the  instant  the  glass  -  blowers 
mould  it.  In  Fig.  363  is  seen 
the  cell-wall  (&),  with  its  lining 
of  protoplasm  (5).  The  round 
body  (c)  in  the  interior  is  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  cell,  within  which  the 
nucleolus  is  also  shown  as  a  white  spot.  In  young 
cells  the  protoplasm  and  nucleus  nearly  fill  the  space, 
but  the  cell-membrane  is  kept  expanded  by  the  sap. 
Protoplasm  does  not  dissolve  in  water,  or  even  mix 
with  it.  It  has  the  power  of  contractility,  and,  in 
living  cells,  is  constantly  in  motion.  When  highly 
magnified,  it  is  found  to  contain  a  vast  number  of 
minute  granules,  which  circulate  in  streams,  having 
particular  directions.  This  beautiful  phenomenon  of 
circulation  in  cells  is  well  seen  in  the  jointed  hairs 
which  cover  the  stamens  of  the  Yirginian  spiderwort. 
It  seems  to  result  from  a  property,  possessed  by 
all  protoplasm,  of  constant  motion  in  some  form  or 
other. 


THE  INTERNAL   STRUCTURES   OF   PLANTS.  201 

CELL-PRODUCTION. — >The  growth  of  plants  takes 
place,  either  by  the  expansion  of  existing  cells,  or 
by  the  formation  of  new  ones,  and  principally  by 
the  latter  method.  "The  contents  of  the  cells  of 
the  growing  part  divide  into  two,  and  between  the 
halved  contents  there  forms  a  thin  layer,  which  di- 
vides each  cell  into  two  distinct  cells.  The  new  cells, 
then,  increase  in  size  until  they  become  as  large  as 
their  parent-cell,  when  they  each  divide  again,  and  the 
process  is  repeated.  The  process  is  modified  according 
as  the  cells  are  to  lengthen  or  to  remain  short." 

The  rate  at  which  cells  are  formed  may  be  gath- 
ered from  such  a  fact  as  the  growth  of  a  huge  puff- 
ball,  sometimes  nearly  a  foot  across,  in  a  single  day. 
In  this  sudden  growth  it  has  been  estimated  that 
300,000,000  or  400,000,000  cells  are  produced  in  an 
hour.  Century -plants,  growing  in  conservatories, 
after  many  years  produce  a  flowering  stem  six  inches 
in  diameter.  The  entire  vigor  of  the  plant  is  devoted 
to  the  growth  of  this  stalk,  which  ascends  at  the  rate 
of  a  foot  in  twenty-four  hours.  Estimating  the  cells 
at  -gfa  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  there  are  formed  more 
than  20,000,000,000  a  day. 


EXERCISE  LXIV. 
Vessels  or  Ducts,  and  Fibres. 

EXPERIMENT. — Take  some  of  the  boiled  pulp  of 
any  soft  vegetable  substance,  as  rhubarb,  that  can 
be  picked  to  pieces  with  needles.  Put  a  bit  of  this 


202 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


stringy  pulp  ID  a  little  water,  and  separate  from  it 
some  of  its  smallest  threads.  Put  these  on  the  glass 
with  a  drop  of  water,  and  arrange  the  thin  cover  as 


FIG.  364. 


FIG.  365. 


before.     "When  magnified,  you  will  see  among  the 
cells  long,  tube-like  bodies,  having  their  walls  marked 
with  rings  and  spirals,  such  as  are  shown  in  Fig.  364. 
Examine  slices  taken  both  across  and 
lengthwise  from  the  young,  succulent,  fast- 
growing  shoots  of  any  plant ;  from  the  ribs, 
petiole,  or  veins  of  leaves ;  from  parts  of 
the  flower,  of  roots,  or  of  underground 
stems.     By  carefully  looking  at  these  sec- 
tions, you  will  again  see  embedded  among 
the  cells  tubes  of  varying  length,  and  with 
different  aspects.     These  tubes  are  called 
ducts. 

EXPERIMENT. — Take  a  small  bit  of  soft 
wood,  half  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  boil  it  in 
a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  for  several  sec- 
onds. Rinse  it  carefully  with  water  three 
or  four  times,  to  cleanse  it  from  acid,  and 
pick  it  to  pieces,  as  you  did  the  fibre  of 
rhubarb.  Examine  a  minute  portion  of 
this  wood  under  the  microscope.  You  will 


THE   INTEKNAL   STRUCTURES   OF   PLANTS.  203 

see  long,  tapering  threads   overlapping  each  other, 
something  like  Fig.  365,  and  called  fibres. 

Vessels,  or  Ducts,  as  Prof.  Gray  prefers  to  call 
them,  are  continuous  tubes  of  considerable  length,  of 
which  the  walls  are  never  smooth,  but 
marked  with  dots,  bars,  rings,  spirals,  etc. 
They  are  sometimes  cylindrical,  and  some- 
times tapering  in  form,  and  contract  a  lit- 
tle from  place  to  place  along  their  length, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  366,  where  circles  are 
formed  by  the  constriction.  The  meaning 
of  these  constrictions  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following 

EXPERIMENT. — Select  from  vegetable 
pulp  some  of  the  stringy  portion  contain- 
ing vessels,  and  pour  upon  it  boiling  water,  sharpened 
by  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  The  vessels  will  break 
up  into  fragments  at  the  places  of  these  circles.  At 
these  points,  also,  you  will  find  partitions  across  the 
vessel,  more  or  less  perforated  and  broken,  or  mem- 
branous folds,  that  may  come  from  the  breaking  of 
these  partitions.  Hence,  it  appears  that  a  vessel  is 
formed  from  a  row  of  cells,  placed  end  to  end ;  the 
partitions,  which  at  first  separated  these  cells,  being 
more  or  less  completely  removed. 

Vessels,  or  ducts,  like  cells,  are  named  from  the 
markings  on  their  walls.  There  are  dotted,  barred, 
spiral,  and  annular  vessels  (Figs.  367-370).  Fig.  371 
represents  scalariform  ducts,  so  named  from  the  lad- 
der-like markings  on  their  walls. 

Fibres,  also,  are  produced  from  cells;  they  are 
cells  altered  in  certain  ways.  All  vegetable  tissue  is 
at  first  cellular,  and  it  is  by  the  elongation  of  cells 


204 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


into  fibres,  as  well  as  by  their  union  and  modification 
in  various  ways,  that  all  the  elements  of  vegetable 
structures  are  produced. 


FIG.  867. 


FIG.  863. 


FIG.  869. 


FIG.  870. 


FIG.  871. 


Fibres  vary  in  length,  and  their  walls  thicken 
with  age  by  the  deposit  upon  their  interior  of  new 
layers  filling  up  the  cavity.  As  long  as  any  cavi- 
ty remains  it  will  be  round,  while,  by  pressure,  the 
external  wall  becomes  flattened  and  prismatic  (Fig. 
372).  In  fibrous  tissue  (Fig.  373)  you  see  the  taper- 
ing, overlapping  extremities,  making  the  texture 
close  and  solid.  The  largest  fibres  of  wood  are  found 
in  trees  of  the  pine  family — cone-bearing  trees — 
where  they  are  as  much  as  -g-J-g-  or  ^-i-g-  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Their  size  varies  in  different  families  of 


THE   INTERNAL   STRUCTURES   OP   PLANTS. 


205 


plants  as  much  as  does  that  of  cells.     The  fibres  of 
basswood  are  about  yVo"  °f  an  incn  ™   diameter. 


FIG.  372. 


FIG.  373. 


But  the  compactness  of  fibrous  tissue  depends  more 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  walls  of  its  fibres  than  upon 
their  fineness.  Hence  the  density  of  the  old  heart- 
wood  of  trees,  where  the  cavities  of  the  fibres  are  en- 
tirely filled  by  deposited  matter.  Woody  fibres  rarely 
exceed  -£%  of  an  inch  in  length,  while  the  fibres  of  some 
kinds  of  wood  are  only  y^-g-  of  an  inch  long. 

Tissues  formed  of  elongated  cells,  particularly  of 
such  cells  as  have  tapering  extremities,  are  called 
prosenchyma.  The  cells  of  prosenchyma  vary  much 
in  length  and  proportions.  Woody  tissue  is  made 
up  chiefly  of  prosenchyma,  yet  some  wood  consist 3 
largely  of  parenchyma,  in  which  the  cells  have  be- 
come solid  by  the  deposits  upon  their  interior.  At 
first  the  elongated  cells  of  wood  have  their  ends 
nearly  square,  but,  as  they  lengthen  and  crowd  each 
other,  they  become  wedge-shaped. 

The  blending  of  cells,  fibres,  and  vessels,  in  the 
tissues  of  a  plant,  is  shown  in  Fig.  374,  which  repre- 


206 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


sents  a  greatly-magnified  section  of  the  Indian  reed. 
At  the  left  you  see  cellular  tissue,  or  parenchyma ; 
then  annular  and  spiral  vessels,  dotted  ducts,  and 
fibres. 

FIG.  374. 


Again,  Figs.  375  and  376  are  drawn  from  sections 
of  the  wood  of  the  plane-tree.  In  Fig.  376  you  see 
the  open  mouths  of  the  ducts,  which  are  shown  ver- 
tically in  Fig.  375. 

EXPERIMENT. — To  observe  the  coiled  threads  upon 
the  walls  of  vessels,  tear  gently  the  young  shoots  of 
the  rose-bush  or  elder,  or  carefully  pull  asunder  the 
petiole,  or  one  of  the  veins  of  a  strawberry-leaf,  just 
breaking  the  cuticle,  and  only  stretching  the  internal 
parts.  Or,  even,  if  the  parts  are  quite  separated,  you 
may  see  with  the  naked  eye,  at  the  point  of  fracture, 


THE   INTERNAL    STRUCTURES    OF    PLANTS. 


207 


the  broken,  mutilated  coils  of  spiral  vessels.  The 
uncoiling,  spiral  thread  is  thus  easily  seen,  but  the 
wall  of  the  vessel  is  difficult  to  find. 


FIG.  875. 


FIG.  376. 


FIG.  377. 


These  membranous  threads  of  spiral  vessels  con- 
tinue, without  interruption,  from  one  end  of  the  ves- 
sel to  the  other.  In  most  cases  they  are  simple,  but 
sometimes  they  are  found  double  (Fig. 
377),  triple,  etc.  Even  twenty  juxtaposed 
threads  have  been  seen  forming  a  ribbon, 
and  unrolling  all  together.  Spiral  threads, 
that  at  first  were  simple,  sometimes  split 
into  several  very  fine  threads.  The  spiral 
thread  is  neither  tubular  nor  channelled ; 
it  may  be  round,  flat,  or  square.  The 
markings  of  annular  vessels,  like  Fig.  377, 
and  vessels  that  have  at  the  same  time 
both  annular  and  spiral  threads  (Fig.  369), 
reticulated,  scalariform,  and  dotted  vessels, 
are  produced  in  the  same  way  as  are  simi- 
lar markings  upon  cells,  as  explained  on 
page  199.  " 

When  you  break  a  stalk  or  leaf  of  milkweed,  let- 


208 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


FIG.  378. 


tuce,  dandelion,  etc.,  there  exudes  a  milky  sap,  called 
latex.  There  is  a  peculiar  system  of  vessels  containing 
this  milky  juice,  known  as  laticiferous  vessels.  They 
form  an  irregular  net-work,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  378.  It  is  thought 
that  these  so-called  laticiferous 
vessels  are  not  true  vessels  made 
up  of  cells  placed  end  to  end, 
but  only  intercellular  spaces 
with  walls  formed  by  a  deposit 
from  the  fluid  that  fills  them. 
They  never  have  markings  up- 
on their  walls  like  the  vessels 
we  have  been  studying.  When 
young,  laticiferous  vessels  are 
extremely  small,  averaging  less 
than  -^Vfr  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  can  only  be  seen  under 

high  magnifying  powers.  Old  vessels,  when  swollen 
from  accumulations  of  their  milky  sap,  are  more  ap- 
parent. As  you  see  by  Fig.  378,  they  are  cylindrical, 
and  the  branches  are  as  large  as  the  veins,  forming  a 
sort  of  net-work.  But  this  kind  of  vegetable  struct- 
ure is  not  well  understood. 


EXERCISE  LXV. 
The  Contents  of  Cells. 

The  contents  of  cells  vary  with  their  stage  of 
growth.  When  very  young  they  usually  contain  only 
the  nucleus  and  protoplasm,  but,  as  they  approach 


THE   INTERNAL    STRUCTURES    OF    PLANTS. 


209 


maturity,  various  substances  are  found  within  them, 
of  different  kinds  and  amounts  in  different  species  of 
plants. 

Look  at  a  section  of  potato  under  the  micro- 
scope, and  observe  the  minute  grains  within  the  cells. 
Compare  your  specimen  with  Fig.  379.  Fig.  380 
represents  some  of  the  cells  more  highly  magnified. 

FIG.  879. 


FIG.  380. 


EXPERIMENT. — Place  upon  the  freshly-cut  surface 
of  potato,  apple,  or  almost   any  fresh  vegetable,  a 
drop  of  tincture  of  iodine.    These  starch-granules  will 
be  colored  violet,  indigo-blue,  or 
deep-blackish  blue,  depending  up- 
on  the  strength  of  the  solution 
used.      If  there   are  albuminous 
granules  in  the  cell,  they  will  be 
colored  brown  or  yellow  by  the 
iodine.     By  this  means  the  con- 
tents of  the  cell  are  made  more 
distinct,  and  the  cell-wall  is  ren- 
dered more  obvious. 

Starch-grains  are  either  irregular,  spheroidal,  or 
egg-shaped  bodies  (Fig.  380),  having  their  surfaces 
marked  with  concentric  circles  around  points.  These 


210  THE    SECOND    BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

circles  indicate  so  many  layers  superposed  around  a 
little  kernel  indicated  by  the  central  point. 

In  looking,  with  the  microscope,  at  sections  of 
leaves,  you  will  see  gelatinous  flocks  of  green  matter 
swimming  in  the  colorless  liquid  of  the  cells,  or  de- 
posited on  the  cell-walls  and  grains  of  starch.  This 
substance,  to  which  vegetation  owes  its  green  color, 
is  called  chlorophyll.  The  yellow  coloring-matter  of 
plants  is  like  chlorophyll  in  every  respect,  except  its 
color,  but  the  red,  violet,  and  blue  coloring-matters 
are  always  liquid. 

The  colorless  sap  of  plants,  which  fills  the  cells 
and  vessels,  holds  in  solution  all  the  materials  of  cell- 
growth,  and  of  the  substances  contained  in  cells.  Su- 
gar, dextrine,  and  gum,  dissolved  in  water,  are  found 
in  the  cells,  the  intercellular  spaces,  and  lacunes,  but, 
being  held  in  solution,  they  cannot  be  detected  by 
the  microscope.  The  intercellular  spaces,  also,  fre- 
quently contain  air.  The  fixed  oils  found  in  seeds  and 
fruits,  and  other  parts  of  the  plant,  form  isolated  glo- 
bules, that,  by  pressure,  flow  together  into  large  glo- 
bules. Essential  oils,  turpentine,  and  caoutchouc,  are 
usually  accumulated  in  intercellular  cavities,  or  given 
oif  at  the  surface  when  the  plant  is  wounded. 

Yarious  mineral  matters  are  also  taken  up  by  the 
roots  from  the  soil,  dissolved  in  water,  and  deposited 
in  the  structure  of  the  plant.  They  occur  sometimes 
in  the  crystalline  form  in  cells.  Indeed,  it  is  said 
that  almost  every  herbaceous  plant  contains  them  in 
more  or  less  abundance.  Fig.  381  represents  cells  of 
rhubarb,  from  one  of  which  needle-shaped  crystals, 
called  raphides,  are  being  ejected.  Cells  of  this  kind 
in  the  stalks  of  rhubarb,  when  moistened  with  water, 


THE   INTERNAL    STRUCTURES    OF    PLANTS. 


211 


become  distended  so  as  to  burst,  and  force  out  the  con- 
tents, as  here  shown.  Cells  with  similar  contents  are 
also  found  in  the  leaves  of  four-o'clock,  Indian  tur- 
nip, and  calla.  These  cell-crystals  are  sometimes  ag- 
glomerated into  masses  of  angular  crystals  (Fig.  382). 


FIG.  882. 


That  these  crystal  are  formed  in  the  cells  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  the  shape  of  the  cell  determines  the 
form  of  the  crystal.  SUea,  the  substance  known  every- 
where as  sand,  exists,  dissolved,  in  the  sap  of  plants, 
and  is  deposited  in  the  stalk  of  grains  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  give  them  the  requisite  stiffness. 


CHAPTEK   XYI. 
THE   STRUCTURE   OF  STEMS, 

Now  that  you  have  seen  the  various  kinds  of  cells, 
fibres,  and  ducts,  and  the  tissues  they  form,  the  next 
step  is  to  discover  how  they  are  put  together  in  the 
construction  of  roots,  stems,  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  and 
seeds.  To  do  this  we  begin  with  the  embryo,  and 
trace  its  development  from  germination  to  maturity. 

As  the  growing  radicle,  the  chief  part  of  the 
embryo,  from  which  roots,  stem,  and  leaves  proceed, 
is  itself  stem,  we  will  study  the  stem  first. 


EXERCISE  LXVI. 

Structure  of  Dicotyledonous  Stems.— First  Year's 
Growth. 

The  monocotyledonous  embryo  starts  with  a  sin- 
gle lobe,  turned  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  plumule, 
while  the  dicotyledonous  embryo  develops  two  oppo- 
site lobes,  spreading  away  laterally  from  the  plumule. 
This  is  but  the  beginning  of  a  series  of  differences  in 
structure,  which  these  two  classes  of  plants  will  pre- 
sent as  growth  proceeds ;  hence,  they  must  be  studied 
separately.  We  begin  with  dicotyledons. 

You  are  familiar  with  the  succession  of  external  ap- 
pearances presented  by  the  growing  plantlet.  In  Fig. 
383  (Gray)  you  see  the  part  which  was  the  embryo 
ending  above,  in  the  plumule,  and  below,  in  the  root. 


THE    STRUCTURE   OF    STEMS. 


213 


The  plant  is  again  shown  in  Fig.  384  (Gray),  after 
the  production  of  two  internodes  and  two  pairs  of 
leaves.  The  stem  still  ends  with  a  bud,  and  the  root 


FIG.  388. 


FIG.  384 


has  undergone  further  development.  Now,  what  in- 
ternal  changes  have  accompanied  these  external  ones  ? 
Cells  have  elongated  into  fibres,  or  united  into 
ducts,  and,  if  we  examine  a  thin  section  of  a  young 
stem,  we  may  observe  the  way  in  which  these  ele- 
ments are  arranged.  Whether  we  take  our  section 
from  a  sprouting  maple,  which  would  represent  the 
woody  plants  of  temperate  regions,  or  from  a  sprout- 


214  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

ing  melon,  as  an  example  of  herbaceous  ones,  the 
appearances  at  first  presented  would  be  nearly  the 
same.     Fig.  .385  represents  a  section  of  the  stem  of  a 
melon.     You  see  it  is  a  mass  of  cellular  tissue,  with 
several   wedge-shaped  bodies, 
forming   a   circle  midway  be- 
tween the  centre  and  the  cir- 
cumference.    Make  such  a  sec- 
tion of  a  young  dicotyledonous 
stem,  and  observe  it  with  your 
microscope.     Look  for  the  cen- 
tral cellular  portion  called  the 
pithy  marked  M  in  the  figure. 
Observe  that  the  outer  portion 

is  cellular,  and  that  central  and  outer  cells  are  con- 
nected by  cellular  strips  (KM),  which  separate  patches 
of  denser  matter.  If  you  make  a  vertical  section 
through  some  of  these  denser  patches,  you  will  find 
them  largely  composed  of  fibres  and  ducts. 

Passing  from  the  centre  outward,  the  parts  you 
have  noticed  are  the  following : 

PITH,  or  MEDULLA. — The  central  cellular  portion 
(M,  Fig.  385). 

MEDULLARY  RAYS. — The  radiating  cellular  bands 
that  connect  the  pith  with  the  circumference  (K  M). 

WOODY,  or  FEBRO- VASCULAR  BUNDLES. — The  wedge- 
shaped  bundles  of  fibres  and  ducts. 

CORTICAL  LAYER. — The  green  cellular  envelop  of 
the  other  parts. 

Carefully  peel  off  some  of  the  skin  from  the  same 
stem,  and  examine  it  under  the  magnify  ing-glass. 
You  see  it  consists  of  flattened,  irregular  cells,  closely 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS. 


215 


united  into  a  firm  membrane.  This  is  the  epidermis, 
and,  excepting  the  stigma,  it  covers  all  the  parts  of  a 
plant  exposed  to  the  air.  By  suitable  means  the  epi- 
dermis may  be  separated  into  two  parts,  the  outer 
of  which  is  not  cellular,  and  exists  sometimes  in  the 
lower  plants  when  the  cellular  portion  is  wanting. 
A  great  French  chemist,  named  Fremy,  has  shown 
that  it  is  like  caoutchouc,  and  is  named  the  cuticle. 


EXERCISE  LXVII. 
Structure  of  a  Woody  Bundle. 

As  the  woody  bundles  of  dicotyledons  are  essen- 
tially alike,  and  as  they  make  up  the  main  substance 
of  the  stem,  we  shall  get  the  best  idea  of  stem-struct- 
ure by  observing  their  composition.  Fig.  386  repre- 

FIG.  386. 


sents  a  highly-magnified  section  of  one  of  these  bun- 
dles, with  its  surrounding  cellular  tissue.  Observe 
the  region  marked  C.  It  is  made  up  of  greenish 
cells  of  extreme  delicacy,  and  it  is  from  these  cells 
that  all  the  other  parts  are  produced.  New  cells  are 
constantly  forming  here,  and  old  ones  are  changing 

10 


216 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


into  fibres  and  vessels  of  various  kinds.  This  is  the 
cambium  layer.  Outside  of  this  layer,  and  by  a 
transformation  of  its  outer  cells,  the  bark  is  formed ; 
within  the  circle  made  by  the  cambium  and  by  trans- 
formations of  its  inner  cells  wood  is  produced. 

The  narrow  end  of  this  woody  bundle,  which  lies 
next  the  pith,  and  is  marked  T  in  Fig.  386,  con- 
sists of  spiral  ducts  and  thick-walled  fibres ;  between 
these  and  the  cambium  layer  is  the  true  woody  re- 
gion, comprising  about  half  the  bundle.  It  is  made 
up  of  woody  fibre,  with  annular,  barred,  and  dotted 
ducts  interspersed.  The  line  E.M  points  to  the 
medullary  ray,  F  to  the  woody  fibres  and  small 
annular  fibres,  VP  to  large  ducts  of  various  kinds. 
Beyond  the  cambium  we  come  upon  L,  the  inner 
bark,  or  liber,  and  then  follows  the  outer  bark. 

The  lower  half  of  Fig.  387  represents  a  vertical 

FIG.  387. 


section  of  the  woody  bundle  shown  in  the  upper  half 
of  the  picture.  Observe  in  the  horizontal  section  the 
cambium  layer,  marked  c ;  the  true  wood  is  seen 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   STEMS. 


217 


passing  from  A  at  the  right ;  and  the  bark,  with  its 
different  layers,  at  the  left.  Trace  these  different 
portions  in  the  vertical  section. 


EXEKCISE  LXYIII. 
The  First  Year's  Growth.— (CONTINUED.) 

The  number  and  compactness  of  the  woody  bun- 
dles in  a  young  stem  will  depend  upon  the  time  of 
the  observation ;  if  it  is  made  early  in  the  season, 
there  will  be  few  (Fig.  388),  and  their  number  will 
increase  with  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  the 


FIG.  888. 


FIG.  389. 


FIG.  390. 


leaves.  This  increase  is  shown  in  Fig.  389,  where 
six  new  bundles  are  seen  inserted  between  the  first 
six  shown  in  Fig.  388 ;  while  in  Fig.  390,  which  rep- 
resents a  woody  stem  at  the  close  of  the  year,  they 
are  shown  filling  all  the  space,  except  the  narrow 
strips  of  the  medullary  rays. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  composition  of  a  woody 
bundle,  as  shown  in  the  last  exercise,  look  again  at 
the  section  of  a  dicotyledonous  stem  during  the  first 


218         THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

year's  growth  (Fig.  391).  Passing  outward  from  the 
medulla,  or  pith,  marked  M,  we  come  first  upon  the 
spiral  ducts  of  the  woody  bundles,  marked  T.  They 
form  a  sort  of  sheath  around  the 
pith,  only  broken  by  the  medul- 
lary rays  (KM),  and,  as  they  en- 
close it,  they  are  called  the  me- 
dullary sheath.  This  portion 
of  the  woody  bundle  is  contin- 
uous with  the  petiole  and  frame- 
work of  leaves. 

EXPERIMENT. — Divide    the 
bark  and  most  of  the  wood  of 

a  young  shoot  by  a  circular  cut,  and  gently  pull  it 
asunder ;  you  may  detect  this  sheath  by  the  stretched 
and  broken  spiral  threads  of  its  fibres. 

Outside  of  the  medullary  sheath,  observe  the  lig- 
neous fibres,  or  zone,  of  true  wood.  Encircling  this 
is  the  cambium  layer.  Up  to  this  point,  excepting 
its  somewhat  less  density,  the  herbaceous  and  the 
woody  stems  are  alike.  It  is  in  the  portion  external 
to  the  cambium  that  we  come  upon  differences.  The 
cambium  and  bark,  it  will  be  seen,  are  important  in 
plants  that  are  to  live  over  to  another  year,  while 
they  are  of  little  account  to  the  herb,  which  dies  in 
autumn.  In  herbaceous  stems,  as  the  melon,  there- 
fore, the  bark  consists  of  simple  parenchyma,  like 
that  of  pith,  except  that  it  is  of  a  green  color ;  but 
in  woody  stems,  as  the  maple,  it  takes  on  a  much 
higher  development,  and  presents  important  differ- 
ences of  structure.  All  the  while  that  wood  is 
forming,  bark  is  also  being  made.  That  portion  of 
it  next  the  cambium  is  wrought  into  woody  tissue, 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF    STEMS. 


219 


consisting  of  peculiar  cells,  called  fiast-cetts,  of  re- 
markable length  and  flexibility,  and  having  very 
thick  walls  (Fig.  392).  They  usually  form  layers 
like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  and  hence  this  portion  of 
the  bark  is  called  the  liber.  The  length  and  tough- 
ness of  its  fibres  have  led  to  its  use  in 
thread,  cord,  and  cloth.  The  bundles 
of  bast-cells  are  always  vertical,  and  are 
separated  by  medullary  rays,  which 
correspond  to  those  of  the  woody  sys- 
tem inside  the  cambium. 

FIG.  392. 


FIG.  398. 


I 


Fibres  of  the  liber,  or  bast-cells,  and 
woody  fibres  from  the  linden,  or  bass- 
wood,  are  shown  in  Fig.  393  (Gray),  a 
is  a  bast-cell,  from  the  bark  of  Ameri- 
can basswood,  while  5  is  woody  tissue, 
from  the  same  tree,  showing  the  upper 
end  of  a  spirally-marked  vessel ;  c  is  a  separate  cell 
of  the  wood.  They  are  all  equally  magnified. 

Besides  the  immensely  greater  length  of  the  bast- 
cells,  they  have  also  very  much  thicker  walls  than  the 


220  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

fibrous  cells  of  wood.  In  leather-wood  the  bast- 
cells  are  even  longer  than  those  of  basswood,  being 
from  %  to  -J  of  an  inch  long,  and  ^^  of  an  incn  jn 
diameter,  while  those  of  the  wood  are  not  more 
than  -j-J-g-  of  an  inch  long.  Few  fibres,  however, 
are  as  long  as  those  of  leather-wood.  There  are 
very  few  plants  in  which  they  exceed  -£%  of  an  inch 
in  length. 

EXPERIMENT. — Strip  the  bark  from  various  woody 
twigs,  and  find  the  liber.  Observe  the  differences  it 
presents  in  different  kinds  of  wood.  Outside  the 
liber  no  woody  tissue  is  found,  but  in  very  young 
woody  stems  this  external  layer  consists  of  loose, 
green,  cellular  tissue.  As  growth  proceeds,  this  is 
soon  covered  with  a  brown  layer  of  varying  hue  and 
thickness,  called  the  corky  envelop.  The  cellular 
layer,  thus  covered  in,  is  known  as  the  green  or 
cellular  layer.  The  corky  envelop  and  green  layer, 
taken  together,  are  called  suber. 

EXPERIMENT. — Gather  the  bark  of  as  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  trees  as  you  can.  Separate  the  suber 
from  the  liber.  Find  the  green  layer  and  the  corky 
layer,  and  note  the  differences  presented  by  your 
collection.  You  will  thus  associate  in  your  mind 
the  character  of  the  bark  with  what  you  know  of 
the  other  parts  and  characters  of  each  kind  ex- 
amined. Passing  from  the  centre  out,  we  have — 
Pith ;  Medullary  sheath  ;  Layer  of  wood ;  Medullary 
rays ;  Cambium ;  Liber ;  Suber,  composed  of  the  green 
layer  and  corky  envelop. 

What  parts  of  the  stem  are  cellular  ?  What  parts 
are  fibrous  and  vascular?  Do  you  know  which 
threads  are  warp  and  which  are  woof,  in  cloth  ?  If 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS.  221 

you  liken  the  stem  to  a  woven  fabric,  which  part  of  it 
would  you  say  made  up  the  warp,  and  which  part 
the  woof? 


EXERCISE  LXIX. 
Second  Year's  Growth  of  Dicotyledonous  Stems* 

In  annual  plants,  like  the  melon,  the  cambium,  of 
course,  perishes  when  the  plant  dies ;  but  in  woody 
plants  this  is  the  region  of  growth  for  all  after-years. 
You  have  seen  that,  in  the  primitive  bundle  (Fig. 
386),  there  are  two  partial  bundles,  one  of  tissues 
belonging  to  the  woody  system,  and  the  other  of 
tissues  belonging  to  the  bark.  The  bark  and  wood 
are  connected  by  a  delicate  tissue  of  actively -mul- 
tiplying cells,  which  may  be  easily  seen  with  the  mi- 
croscope. As  these  cells  are  more  gorged  in  spring, 
the  bark  and  wood  are  then  more  easily  separable. 

Now,  on  the  second  year  this  cellular  zone  forms 
in  its  interior,  or  next  the  wood,  a  new  layer  of  wood, 
precisely  as  in  the  former  year,  by  the  elongation  of 
some  of  its  cells  into  fibres,  and  the  conversion  of 
others  into  vessels,  or  ducts,  while  still  others  form 
the  parenchyma  of  the  medullary  rays.  On  the  side 
of  the  cambium  next  the  bark  there  is  similarly 
formed  from  its  cells  a  second  layer  of  bark,  precisely 
like  that  of  the  first  year.  The  new  layer  of  bark 
and  the  new  layer  of  wood  are,  as  before,  transformed 
cambium,  but  they  are  always  separated  by  the  true 
cambium  layer  of  vitally-active  cells. 


222  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

The  changes  produced  by  age  upon  the  woody 
system  of  the  stem,  besides  its  annual  addition  of  a 
woody  layer,  constituted  as  above  described,  are, 
first,  loss  of  color  of  the  cells  of  the  pith,  which  at 
last  dry  up,  and  lose  all  vitality ;  the  thickening  of 
the  wood-fibres  by  internal  deposit,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  they  take  on  a  dark  color,  and  become 
duramen,  or  heart-wood. 

Can  you  see  any  reason  why  the  yearly  layers  of 
wood  should  form  rings  so  distinct  that  they  can  be 
counted,  and  the  age  of  the  tree  determined  ?  It  is 
because  the  wood  formed  in  the  first  part  of  the  year, 
which  is,  of  course,  placed  next  the  old  ring,  is  more 
porous,  and  often  has  a  larger  number  of  ducts  with 
large  mouths  than  the  wood  formed  later  in  the  sea- 
son. This  is  shown  in  Fig.  394,  where  the  annual 

FIG.  394. 


layers  are  marked  off  and  numbered,  and  you  see 
that  the  inner  portion  of  the  layer  is  more  porous 
than  the  outer. 

Now,  the  new  layer  of  wood  is  moulded  exactly 
upon  the  last  year's  layer,  so  that  the  bundles  are 
separated,  as  before,  by  the  medullary  rays,  which 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   STEMS. 


223 


are,  of  course,  continuous  with  those  of  the  former 
year,  and  so  extend  from  the  pith  to  the  bark.  The 
woody  bundles  of  the  second  year  are  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of  the  first  year.  If  each  newly-added 
portion  of  the  old  woody  bundle  was  undivided,  there 
would  be  the  same  number  of  medullary  rays  through- 
out the  growth  of  the  stem.  But,  besides  the  medul- 
lary rays  that  separate  the  primitive  bundles,  and  ex- 
tend from  the  pith  to  the  bark,  there  arise  divisions 
of  each  new  bundle  into  two  or  three  parts  by  series 
of  cells,  which  are  called  small  medullary  rays  (Fig. 
395). 


FIG.  395. 


In  this  figure,  representing  four  years'  growth, 
you  can  trace  the  rays  of  each  successive  year.  There 
is  only  one  of  the  first  year's  growth,  and,  by  the  de- 
velopment of  this  portion  of  the  stem,  on  the  fourth 
year  you  see  fifteen.  So  that  each  year,  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  new  woody  layer,  new  medullary  rays 
are  also  started,  which  are  prolonged  on  the  following 
years  in  the  same  way  as  the  great  rays  proceeding 
from  the  centre  of  the  stem. 


224 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


In  our  picture  of  the  woody  bundle  (Fig.  386)  of 
the  first  year,  the  portion  next  the  pith  is  shown, 
consisting  of  spiral  ducts;  and  you  saw  (Fig.  385) 
that  the  spiral  ducts  of  all  the  woody  bundles  form  a 
sheath  around  the  pith.  But  this  sheath  is  not  re- 
produced in  after-years.  There  are  no  spiral  ducts 
in  the  wood  of  the  second  year.  They  are  never 
found  in  woody  stems,  except  around  the  pith. 

The  stem,  then,  is  made  up  of  two  distinct  parts, 
the  wood  and  the  bark.  Fig.  396  represents  a  por- 


FIG.  396. 


K L.  P.  L.  k  LMC.C.  F.  v.  F.  v.  F.V.T. 


M 


tion  of  a  woody  stem  three  years  old.  At  M,  you 
see  the  pith ;  T  is  the  medullary  sheath,  and  Y,  F, 
the  woody  layer  of  the  first  year,  followed  by  Y,  F, 
Y,  F,  the  layers  of  the  second  and  third  years.  After 
the  cambium  (C)  is  the  green  layer  of  the  bark  (M  C), 
and  the  three  successive  yearly  rings  of  bark,  marked 
L,  P,  L,  P,  L,  P. 

The  green  layer  does  not  increase  at  all  after  the 
first  year,  as  the  corky  layer  shuts  out  the  light  on 
which  its  growth  depends,  and  finally  it  perishes  en- 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   STEMS. 


225 


tirely.  The  corky  layer  continues  to  grow  for  a  few 
years,  but  it  differs  in  different  species.  Its  cells 
are  powdery  in  the  birch,  and  so  cause  the  peeling 
of  the  more  compact  layers.  The  liber  continues  to 
grow  throughout  the  life  of  the  tree. 

Fig.  397  represents  a  vertical  and  horizontal  sec- 
tion of  a  woody  stem  three  years  old,  in  which  you 
can  trace  the  parts  we  have  described. 


FIG.  39T. 


What  must  be  the  effect  upon  the  bark  of  this 
yearly  formation  of  two  new  layers  within  it  ? 

Examine  the  bark  of  such  trees  as  you  can  get  at, 
and  point  out  the  results  which  you  think  follow  from 
this  internal  deposit  of  matter. 

In  oak  and  chestnut  wood  the  ducts  of  the  inner 
portion  of  each  annual  layer  are  large  and  numerous, 
while  the  outer  portion  of  the  layer  is  dense  and  solid. 


226         THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

In  inaple  and  beech  the  ducts  are  uniformly  dis- 
tributed, while  in  pines  there  are  no  ducts  at  all. 
But  the  inner  and  outer  portions  of  each  layer 
are  still  so  different  in  compactness,  that  the  line 
which  separates  the  new,  large,  vigorous  cells  of  the 
spring  growth  from  the  close,  fine  cells,  formed  the 
last  of  the  previous  season,  can  usually  be  distinctly 
seen. 

But,  if  the  wood  of  pines  has  no  ducts,  it  still 
presents  a  peculiar  structure.  It  is  composed  wholly 
of  dotted  fibres,  and  the  dots  are  produced  by  little 
hollows  in  the  sides  of  the  fibres,  like  the  cavity  of  a 
watch-glass,  these  hollows  being  so  placed 
FIG.  397.*  that,  when  fibres  come  together,  one  concavity 
answers  to  another  (Fig.  397*),  making  a  lens- 
shaped  space,  like  two  watch  crystals,  so  placed 
that  the  concavities  face  each  other.  These 
little  disk-like  marks  are  the  result  of  an 
unequal  deposit  of  the  lining  material  of  the 
fibre,  leaving  thin  places  where  the  wall  of 
the  fibres  curves  inward.  This  thinness,  as 
the  fibre  gradually  fills  up  with  deposits,  pro- 
duces in  the  centre  of  each  cup  a  short  canal, 
opening  into  its  interior.  The  cavity  is  usu- 
ally filled  with  turpentine,  which  sometimes 
finds  its  way  through  this  canal  into  the  fibre, 
destroying  it  little  by  little,  and  often  producing  con- 
siderable deposits  of  resin  in  the  wood  of  green  trees. 
In  all  the  pine  family  these  marks  are  on  the  lateral 
portions  of  the  fibres,  and  never  on  the  part  toward 
the  centre  or  the  outside  of  the  tree. 


THE   STETTCTITKE   OF   STEMS. 


227 


FIG.  398. 


EXERCISE    LXX. 
Stalk  of  Monocotyledons. 

The  embryo  of  the  monocotyledon  is  entirely  cel- 
lulai  before  germination.  Growth  commences  by 
the  elongation  of  these  cells,  and  the  gradual  forma- 
tion of  fibro-vascular  bundles.  At  first  the  bundles 
are  few,  and  disposed  much  as  in  young  dicotyle- 
dons, but,  in  proportion  as  the 
leaves  develop,  these  bundles 
multiply,  and  are  distributed, 
without  apparent  order,  all 
through  the  cellular  tissue; 
they  are,  however,  much  more 
numerous  and  solid  as  they 
approach  the  circumference  of 
the  stalk.  Make  an  horizontal 
section  of  the  stem  of  a  corn- 
stalk, and  compare  it  with  Fig. 

398,  where  the  dots  (F)  represent  woody  bundles,  and 
the  spaces  (M)  represent  cellular  tissue. 

FIG.  899. 


If  you  examine  one  of  these  bundles  under  the 
microscope,  you  will  find  it  presenting  an  aspect  like 


228 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


FIG.  400. 


Fig.  399.  That  portion  of  the  bundle  which  looks 
toward  the  centre  of  the  stem  answers  to  wood,  and 
the  outer  portion  answers  to  the  inner  bark,  while 
the  cellular  tissue,  through  which  the  bundles  are 
interspersed,  answers  to  the  medullary  rays  and  pith 
of  the  stems  of  dicotyledons.  In  Fig.  399  L  is  a 
region  of  fibres,  with  thick  walls  and  spiral  ducts 
(T).  Then,  in  the  midst  of  cells  and  fibres  (P),  we 
have  barred  and  dotted  ducts  (Y);  beyond,  at  L, 
are  thick  fibres,  like  the  liber,  and,  still  outside  of 
these,  the  laticiferous  ducts  ( V  L). 

The  vertical  section  of  a  stem  formed  from  these 
bundles  presents  an  appearance  like  Fig.  400.  These 
woody  bundles,  scattered  irregu- 
larly through  the  cellular  tissue, 
remain  single  and  isolated.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  a  separation 
of  the  stem  into  a  woody  system, 
and  a  region  of  bark,  with  cam- 
bium interposed,  as  in  dicotyle- 
dons. There  are  differences, 
however,  between  the  central 
and  exterior  parts  of  the  stem, 
somewhat  analogous  to  these, 
which  we  will  endeavor  to  ex- 
plain. 

Figs.  401  and  402  will  assist 

in  understanding  these  differences.  The  dark  lines 
represent  woody  bundles.  Each  bundle,  traced  from 
above  downward,  starts  from  a  point  on  the  stalk, 
where  a  leaf  is  inserted,  descends  obliquely  toward 
the  centre  of  the  stem  (mark  this),  then,  curving  out- 
ward, descends  obliquely  again  toward  the  circumfer- 


THE   STRUCTURE  OP   STEMS. 


229 


ence.  You  see  it  crossing  successively  all  the  bun- 
dles situated  below  it,  and  older  than  itself,  and 
taking  its  place  above  them. 

Now,  the  differences  between  the  interior  and 
exterior  of  the  stem  result  chiefly  from  the  changes 
in  composition  that  each  bundle  under- 
goes in  its  course  from  its  origin  at  the 
leaf  insertion  to  its  ending  in  the  cir- 


FIG.  402. 


FIG.  401. 


cumference  far  below.  In  the  region 
of  the  bundle  which  descends  toward 
the  centre,  its  woody  portion  is- greatly 
in  excess  over  the  cortical  part,  while 
below  this  region,  in  the  part  of  the 
bundle  which  descends  toward  the  periphery,  the 
cortical  part  of  the  bundle  greatly  predominates,  and 
finally  forms  almost  the  whole  of  it.  On  approach- 
ing the  outside,  the  bundle  grows  thin,  and  divides 
into  several  filaments,  resembling  fibrous  roots.  These 
filaments  interlace  with  those  of  neighboring  bundles, 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

and  form  a  zone  of  a  sort  of  netted  liber  inside  the 
cellular  layer,  which  serves  as  bark. 

It  is  thus  apparent  that  the  central  part  of  the 
stem  will  always  be  made  up  of  the  part  of  the 
woody  thread  in  which  the  wood  predominates.  This 
part  of  the  thread  is  porous,  and  contains  great  ves- 
sels, so  that  the  centre  of  the  stem  is  rather  cellu- 
lar and  vascular  than  fibrous.  In  the  same  way  the 
peripheral  part  of  the  stem  always  contains,  or  is 
made  up  chiefly  of,  the  part  of  the  thread  in  which 
the  cortical  portion,  the  bast-cells,  or  liber,  predomi- 
nate ;  it  is,  therefore,  more  solid.  Outside  of  this  is 
the  region  where  the  spongy  bundles  split  and  inter- 
lace, losing  themselves  in  the  bark ;  so  that  an  hori- 
zontal section  of  a  monocotyledon ous  stem  is  made 
up  of  a  central  porous  portion,  a  peripheral  colored 
and  dense  portion,  and  a  zone  of  a  sort  of  liber  ex- 
terior to  this.  In  dicotyledons,  on  the  contrary,  the 
old,  solid  wood  is  in  the  centre,  or  heart,  of  the  stem, 
and  the  new,  soft  wood  surrounds  it.  A  monocoty- 
ledon ous  stem  presents  nearly  the  same  size  along 
its  whole  length.  This  is  because  the  woody  bundles 
lessen  gradually  toward  their  inferior  portion,  and  are 
not  all  collected  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  as  in  dicoty- 
ledons. 

In  monocotyledons,  the  new  wood  is  formed  in 
the  central  part  of  the  stem ;  they  are  hence  called 
endogens,  or  inside  growers,  while  dicotyledons,  which 
form  their  new  wood  in  circles  outside  the  old,  are 
called  exogens,  or  outside  growers. 

This  is,  perhaps,  as  good  a  place  as  any  to  tell  you 
that  all  plants  that  bear  their  seeds  in  closed  seed-ves- 
sels may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes,  based  upon 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS.  231 

characters  of  seed,  stem,  and  leaves.  Their  seeds  are 
either  monocotyledon ous  or  dicotyledonous.  The  mo- 
nocotyledons have  stems  in  which  the  parts  are  ar- 
ranged as  we  have  just  shown ;  they  have  the  endogen- 
ous structure,  and  are  hence  called  endogens.  Their 
leaves  are  also  parallel-veined.  The  dicotyledons,  on 
the  contrary,  have  stems  with  the  exogenous  struct- 
ure, and  are  hence  called  exogens.  They  have  also  net- 
veined  leaves.  Now,  these  characters  are  almost  al- 
ways combined  as  here  stated.  There  are  dicotyledons 
with  parallel-veined  leaves,  though  they  are  very  rare ; 
but  the  structure  of  the  stem  is  characteristic.  When 
you  find  a  plant  with  a  stem  having  woody  bundles 
surrounding  the  pith,  it  belongs  to  the  class  of  exo- 
gens ;  but,  when  the  woody  bundles  are  seen  scattered, 
without  order,  through  the  parenchyma,  the  plant  be- 
longs to  the  class  of  exogens.  The  coniferae,  you 
remember,  are  poly  cotyledon  ous  and  naked-seeded, 
but  they  form  their  new  wood  outside  the  old,  and 
therefore  belong  to  the  exogenous  class. 

Among  the  flowerless  plants,  minute  structure 
also  furnishes  characters  used  in  classification.  The 
stems  of  ferns  have  a  mode  of  growth  peculiar  to 
themselves,  which  has  given  them  the  name  of  acro- 
gens,  or  end-growers,  because  the  new  parts  are  always 
formed  above  the  old.  Mosses,  algae,  and  fungi,  are 
called  cellular  plants,  being  made  up  of  nothing  but 
cells.  It  is  not  till  we  come  to  ferns  in  the  ascending 
scale  of  vegetation,  that  any  thing  like  true  vessels 
and  fibres  appear. 

The  scheme  on  the  following  page  will  show  you 
how  these  plant-characters  are  used  in  separating  the 
vegetable  kingdom  into  classes : 


232 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


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CHAPTER   XVII. 
THE  ROOT. 


FIG.  403. 


EXEECISE  LXXI. 
True  Moots  and  Adventitious  Moots. 

WHEN  the  young  plant  contained  in  the  seed  be- 
gins to  grow,  the  plumule  rises  toward  the  light, 
while  the  opposite  portion 
grows  downward,  and  be- 
comes root.  Observe  in 
Figs.  383  and  384  that  the 
root,  as  it  increases  in 
length,  sends  off  branches 
on  all  sides.  Roots  formed 
thus,  by  the  extension  and 
branching  of  the  root-end 
of  the  embryo,  are  called 
true  roots. 

But,  in  the  sprouting  of 
such  seeds  as  the  oat  or 
Indian-corn  (Fig.  403,  from 
Prof.  Gray),  the  radicle 
never  lengthens;  it  be- 
comes abortive,  and  the 
roots  spring  from  the  side 
of  the  stem.  All  roots 
that  arise  from  the  sides 
of  stems,  either  in  germi- 
nation, or  at  any  period  in 
the  growth  of  a  plant,  are 


234:  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

called  adventitious  roots.  The  roots  of  all  mono- 
cotyledons are  adventitious.  Many  dicotyledonous 
plants  produce  adventitious  roots  in  the  course  of 
growth. 

EXPERIMENTS. — Place  the  branch  of  a  willow  with 
its  cut  end  in  the  moist  ground.  It  will  send  out 
roots,  and  become  an  independent  plant. 

Detach  a  slip  of  geranium  from  its  parent  plant 
and  bury  its  broken  end  in  moist  sand.  It  will  take 
root,  and  form  a  perfect  plant. 

Observe  the  roots  of  Indian-corn,  that  always 
arise  just  above  the  ground,  at  the  joints,  and,  grow- 
ing downward,  enter  the  soil. 

Some  plants,  as  the  strawberry,  that  begin  life 
with  true  roots,  continue  it  by  means  of  adventitious 
roots. 

Bend  over  the  young  branch  of  a  rose-bush,  and 
bury  a  portion  of  it  in  the  soil  (layering).  It  will 
attach  itself  by  means  of  adventitious  roots,  and  then 
you  may  cut  its  connection  with  the  parent -bush 
without  harm. 

Adventitious  roots  are  often  found  on  the  stem 
of  climbing  plants,  giving  support  to  them  by  ad- 
hering to  adjacent  objects. 

Only  true  roots  become  tap-roots.  When  the 
branches  of  true  roots  remain  small,  the  central  por- 
tion can  thicken ;  but,  if  they  are  many  and  vigor- 
ous, the  central  portion  is  lost,  and  the  root  becomes 
fibrous.  All  the  various  forms  of  roots  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  the  branching  and  the  enlargement  of 
its  different  portions  by  deposits  of  food. 


THE   BOOT.  235 

EXERCISE  LXXII. 
The  Minute  Structure  of  Hoots. 

In  the  germination  of  dicotyledons  the  cells  of 
the  root-end  of  the  radicle  multiply,  and  the  central 
ones  are  changed  into  vessels  continuous  with  those 
of  the  stem.  The  developed  root  differs  from  the 
stem  in  having  neither  pith  nor  medullary  rays. 
Like  the  stem,  its  thickness  increases  by  the  annual 
formation  of  a  layer  of  wood  and  a  layer  of  bark. 
Spiral  ducts  are  never  found  in  roots ;  such  fibres 
and  ducts  as  enter  into  its  composition  are  like  those 
found  in  the  stem.  Its  cells  are  filled  with  sap  and 
with  starch.  In  monocotyledons  the  multitude  of 
fibrous  roots,  which  issue  from  the  side  of  the  radi- 
cle in  germination,  are  exactly  like  the  stem  in  their 
minute  structure. 

Roots  grow  in  length  by  additions  of  matter  at 
the  tip,  or  free  end,  while  the  stem  grows  throughout 
its  whole  length.     You  may  test 
this  statement  by  marking  off  into  FIG.  404. 

four  equal  divisions,  with  ink,  the 
parts  of  the  root  of  a  sprouting  pea. 
After  leaving  it  in  the  soil  for  three 
or  four  days,  observe  whether  the 
parts  have  all  lengthened  to  the 
same  extent.  It  has  been  calculated 
that  the  growth  is  confined  to  a 
space  of  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch 
from  its  tip. 

Fig.  404  represents  the  struct- 
ure of  the  growing  extremity  of  roots  and  rootlets. 
The  darkened  cells  (b)  are  the  region  of  vital  activity ; 


236 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


the  dead  cells  (a)  at  the  extreme  end  form  a  sort  of 
root-cap,  which  protects  the  living  point  from  injury 
as  it  pushes  its  way  through  the  earth.  These  dead 
cells  are  gradually  sloughed  off,  and  replaced  by  the 
addition  of  worn-out  cells  from  within.  As  these 
root-tips  absorb  moisture  from  the  soil,  they  have 
been  called  spongioles,  though  incorrectly. 

The  surface  of  the  growing  parts  of  roots  is  often 
densely  covered  with  minute  hairs.  Fig.  405  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  barley -root 
highly  magnified,  and  you  see 
the  hairs  are  tubular  elongations 
of  the  outer  root-cells.  They  are 
more  abundant  in  poor  than  in 

FIG.  405. 


FIG.  406. 


good  soils.  They  wither  with 
age,  and  are  replaced  by  new  ones 
nearer  the  extremity  of  the  young- 
est branches  and  fibres.  Pull  up 
a  young  radish,  and  observe  its  surface.  Compare  it 
with  A  (Fig.  406).  Rinse  away  the  dirt,  and  com- 


THE   ROOT.  237 

pare  it  now  with  B  (Fig.  406).  Observe  the  absence 
of  hairs  at  the  tip. 

The  first  formation  of  roots  in  plants  is  quite  in- 
dependent of  the  medium  in  which  they  exist.  But, 
when  the  roots  begin  to  act,  their  growth  depends 
very  much  upon  the  medium  that  surrounds  them. 
If  there  is  food,  they  grow ;  and,  the  more  abundant 
the  food,  the  more  they  multiply.  Those  rootlets 
that  come  in  contact  with  food,  flourish  and  branch 
in  all  directions;  while  those  that  find  none,  cease 
to  grow,  or  perish.  Roots  that  grow  in  rich  soil  are 
short  and  very  branching ;  while  in  poor  soil  they  are 
long,  slender,  and  have  few  rootlets. 

Most  plants  with  roots  adapted  to  the  soil  will  die 
if  they  be  left  in  air  or  in  water ;  while  water-plants 
die  if  their  roots  are  placed  in  the  earth.  Yet  there 
are  some  plants  which  flourish  equally  well,  whether 
their  roots  are  in  the  soil,  in  swamps  and  marshes,  or 
in  water.  For  instance,  rice  will  grow  in  pine-bar- 
rens, in  the  tide  swamps  of  the  coast,  or  when  its 
roots  are  under  water  throughout  its  life. 

If,  however,  the  seeds  of  many  ordinary  plants, 
when  sprouted,  have  their  roots  placed  in  water,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  seed  and  stem  in  air,  and 
nourishment  be  supplied  to  them,  they  will  produce 
foliage,  flowers,  and  seeds,  the  same  as  if  grown  in 
the  soil ;  but,  when  thus  started  in  water,  they  will 
not  bear  transplanting  into  soil  of  the  usual  dryness. 
If  so  transplanted,  they  may  be  kept  alive  by  profuse 
watering  until  the  formation  of  new  roots  adapted  to 
the  soil.  Equal  difficulty  is  met  when  plants,  started 
in  the  soil,  have  their  roots  placed  in  water. 


238         THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  LXXIII. 
Duration    of  Hoots. 

Roots  are  divided  into  classes,  according  to  their 
duration. 

ANNUAL  ROOTS  are  those  which  spring  from  the 
seed,  and  die  the  same  year  or  season.  They  are 
always  fibrous,  arising  from  numerous  divisions  of 
the  main  or  tap  root,  or,  as  in  all  annual  grasses,  the 
root  is  made  up  entirely  of  such  fibres  proceeding  at 
once  from  the  base  of  the  stem. 

BIENNIAL  ROOTS  are  those  which  live  through  two 
seasons,  dying  at  the  close  of  the  second.  You  may 
trace  their  history  in  every  garden.  Plant  parsnip- 
seeds,  for  instance,  which  send  down  their  true  roots, 
and  form  an  abundant  crown  of  showy  leaves.  In  the 
autumn  the  leaves  die,  and  the  tap-roots,  filled  with 
nutritious  matters,  so  valuable  to  man,  survive  the 
winter,  and  in  the  following  spring  begin  to  grow 
again.  But  the  course  of  growth  is  reversed  from 
that  of  the  previous  season.  Before,  it  was  busy 
storing  up  nourishment,  which  is  now  spent  in  form- 
ing stem,  leaves,  flowers,  and  seeds,  with  the  ripen- 
ing of  which  the  whole  plant  dies. 

PERENNIAL  ROOTS. — These  are  found  in  plants 
which  last  year  after  year.  In  trees  and  shrubs  the 
same  roots  live  and  grow  indefinitely ;  but  in  herbs 
that  continue  from  year  to  year,  the  active  roots  of 
each  season  die  at  its  close,  leaving  a  stock  of  newly- 
formed  roots  to  perform  the  work  of  the  succeed- 
ing seasons.  The  peony  and  the  horseradish  are 
examples. 


CHAPTEE   XYIII. 
THE  LEAF. 

EXERCISE  LXXIV. 
The  Minute  Structure  of  Leaves. 

STEMS  bear  nothing  but  leaves  of  some  kind  or 
other,  for  branches  are  only  secondary  stems.  As 
leaves  are  developed  upon  the  stem,  we  should  expect 
to  find  them  composed  of  the  same  elements  as  the 
stem.  By  means  of  the  microscope  you  may  easily 
determine  whether  this  is  so.  First  examine  the 
structure  of  the  framework  of  a  leaf.  Observe  a 
thin  horizontal  or  oblique  section,  taken  from  the 
petiole,  midrib,  or  veins.  You  will  find  it  composed 
of  fibrous  and  vascular  tissue.  Examine  a  similar 
slice  of  the  pulp.  It  consists  of  cells  filled  with 
chlorophyll.  The  framework  is  fibro-vascular,  while 
the  meshes  of  the  framework  are  filled  with  paren- 
chyma. If  you  should  trace  the  elements  of  veins 
and  ribs  back  into  the  stem,  you  would  find  the  upper 
part  of  this  framework  connected  with  the  medullary 
sheath,  and  you  would  note  that  this  upper  portion, 
like  the  medullary  sheath,  is  largely  composed  of 
spiral  ducts.  The  lower  portions  of  the  framework 
that  appear  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  you  would 
find  to  arise  from  the  bark,  and  to  be  continuations 
of  the  liber.  The  ribs  of  most  dicotyledons  contain 
much  liber,  which  makes  them  project  on  the  lower 
surface. 

11 


240 


THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


FIG.  407. 


Are  there  also  differences  in  the  parenchyma  of 
the  upper  and  under  sides  of  leaves  ?  Make  a  verti- 
cal section  of  the  blade  of  any  fresh,  ordinary  leaf, 
and  observe  the  structure.  Compare  it  with  Fig. 
407.  Are  not  the  cells  much  more  closely  packed 
on  the  upper  than  on  the  under 
side  ?  In  the  figure  you  see  the 
upper  side,  composed  of  three 
rows  of  closely  -  packed  cells, 
placed  end  to  end,  while  in  the 
lower  half  the  cells  are  placed  ir- 
regularly, and  the  tissue  is  full  of 
intercellular  spaces.  You  see  in 
this  portion  of  the  section  the  cut- 
ends  of  vessels  and  fibres,  where 
a  vein  has  been  severed.  This 
is  but  one  out  of  many  different 
modes  of  arrangement ;  but,  in 
all  such  leaves  as  turn  one  side 
toward  the  sky  and  the  other  toward  the  ground, 
there  will  be  found  more  or  less  difference  in  the 
structure  of  the  upper  and  under  portions. 

Remove  a  bit  of  the  epidermis,  or  skin,  of  a  leaf,  put 
it  upon  the  glass,  with  a  drop  of  water,  and  examine 
it  with  the  microscope.  Is  there  any  chlorophyll  in 
its  cells?  How  are  the  cells  arranged?  Is  there 
more  than  one  layer  ?  Does  your  specimen  exhibit 
any  such  appearances  as  are  seen  among  the  cells  in 
Fig.  408?  Examine  a  fresh  bit  of  skin  from  the 
under  surface  of  a  leaf,  and  you  will  surely  find 
them.  They  are  much  larger  and  more  numerous  in 
some  leaves  than  in  others.  Between  and  under- 
neath these  two  oblong  cells  there  is  an  opening 


THE   LEAF.  241 

through  the  epidermis  into  the  intercellular  spaces  of 
the  parenchyma.  These  thin-walled  cells  which  guard 
the  opening  separate  when  swollen  with  moisture, 
and  close  together,  so  as  to  cover  it,  when  dry.  They 

FIG.  408. 


are  called  stomata,  or  breathing-pores.  In  some  plants, 
as  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  the  white  lily, 
there  are  about  sixty  thousand  of  these  stomata  to 
the  square  inch ;  while  in  the  epidermis  of  the  upper 
surface  there  are  only  about  three  thousand  to  the 
square  inch.  They  vary  in  different  plants  from  less 
than  a  thousand  to  one  hundred  and  seventy  thousand 
to  the  square  inch  of  surface.  Examine  the  epider- 
mis from  any  part  of  a  plant,  from  the  stem,  or  from 
sepals,  petals,  etc.  You  will  often  find  it  furnished 
with  stomata,  but  you  will  look  in  vain  for  them  in 
the  leaves  of  water-plants. 

The  lower  side  of  the  leaf  has  generally  more 
hairs  than  the  upper  side.  These  hairs  are  continua- 
tions of  epidermal  cells,  and  vary  much  in  structure. 

Fig.  409  represents  a  magnified  portion  of  the 
epidermis  of  a  cabbage-leaf.  The  oblong  slits  are 
stomata,  while  the  pointed,  protruding  bodies  are 


24:2 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


hairs  in  different  stages  of  development.  One  of 
these  hairs,  with  some  of  the  cells  of  the  epidermis, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  410.  Hairs  composed  of  a  single 


FIG.  409. 


FIG.  410. 


cell  are  sometimes  branched,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
which  represents  a  hair  of  alyssum ;  J  is  a  transverse 
section,  which  better  shows  the  star-like  form  of  the 
branching.  In  Fig.  412  (a)  the  hair  has  the  appear- 
ance of  cells  strung  together  like  beads. 


FIG.  411. 


FIG.  412. 


FIG.  413. 


Glands  are  organs  that  possess  the  property  of 
secreting ;  that  is  to  say,  of  separating  some  particu- 
lar liquid  from  the  juices  with  which  they  are  in  con- 


THE   LEAF.  243 

tact.  They  are  cellular,  and  found  in  the  substance 
of  the  epidermis,  at  the  base  of  hairs,  as  in  stings,  or 
carried  on  the  summit  of  hairs,  as  in  Fig.  413. 

Such  hairs  give  to  plants  an  appearance  as  if 
covered  with  little  pellucid  dew-drops.  Look  at  the 
hairs  of  all  sorts  of  plants  through  the  microscope. 
You  will  find  that  glandular  hairs  are  by  no  means 
uncommon. 

Fig.  412  (b)  represents  a  sting.  It  consists  of  a  sin- 
gle cell,  fixed  upon  a  gland,  filled  with  irritating  juices. 
When  the  hair  is  disturbed,  the  liquid  of  the  gland 
passes  through  it,  and  is  injected  into  the  disturbing 
object.  Glands  are  sometimes  buried  in  the  bark, 
but  they  are  always  near  the  epidermis.  Cavities 
containing  gums,  resins,  etc.,  are  analogous  to  glands, 
but  buried  more  deeply  in  the  substance  of  the  plant. 

Bracts,  sepals,  and  petals,  are  constructed  in  the 
same  way  as  foliage-leaves.  Their  framework  is  fibro- 
vascular,  and  filled  in  with  parenchyma,  which  con- 
tains various  coloring-matters  instead  of  chlorophyll ; 
and  over  all  there  is  spread  a  delicate  epidermis,  more 
or  less  studded  with  stomata.  The  sepals  of  mono- 
cotyledons are  parallel-veined,  and  those  of  dicotyle- 
dons are  net-veined.  When  petals  have  long  claws, 
the  fibro-vascular  bundles  traverse  them,  and  sepa- 
rate, to  form  the  framework  of  the  limb,  which  is 
composed  of  spiral  vessels  and  elongated  cells. 

If  you  examine  the  structure  of  the  filament,  you 
will  find  it  composed  of  a  central  bundle  of  spiral 
vessels  and  delicate  woody  tissue,  which  terminate  in 
the  connective.  They  are  surrounded  by  a  layer  of 
cells,  covered  by  the  epidermis.  The  anthers  are  en- 
tirely cellular,  the  pollen  cavities  being  lined  with  a 


244  THE   SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

layer  of  annular,  spiral,  or  reticulated  cells,  which  di- 
minishes in  thickness  as  it  approaches  the  line  of  de- 
hiscence. 

In  the  structure  of  a  carpel,  you  find  the  ovary 
covered  with  a  double  layer  of  epidermis,  enclosing 
cellular  tissue  and  fibro-vascular  bundles  that  rise 
from  the  ovary  into  the  style,  not  as  in  the  filament 
at  its  centre,  but  at  the  circumference.  The  centre 
of  the  style  is  a  sort  of  canal,  with  cells  projecting 
inward,  and  its  middle  filled  with  moist,  cellular  fila- 
ments, called  conductive  tissue.  This  tissue  also  forms 
the  summit  of  the  style,  is  destitute  of  any  epidermis, 
and  is  familiarly  known  to  you  as  the  stigma. 

The  fibres  of  the  pistil  end  in  the  placenta,  which 
gives  off  spiral  vessels  to  the  funiculus.  These  ves- 
sels terminate  in  the  chalaza  of  the  ovules.  Make 
sections  of  these  parts,  and  observe  the  structure  for 
yourselves. 

Watch  the  development  of  young  leaves.  Ob- 
serve at  what  stage  of  growth  the  framework  be- 
comes visible ;  whether  the  base  or  apex  is  formed 
first ;  when  the  stipules  appear ;  when  lobes,  and  the 
leaflets  of  compound  leaves.  How  does  a  leaf  look 
when  first  visible  in  the  bud  ?  Has  it  any  thing  like 
a  leaf-form?  Can  you  find  vessels  or  fibres  in  its 
structure  while  yet  in  the  bud  ? 

Watch  the  development  of  the  various  organs  of 
the  flower  as  the  bud  is  growing.  Observe  which  of 
its  organs  appear  first.  Note  whether  the  base  or 
apex  of  the  petals  is  formed  first.  Where  the  parts 
of  the  calyx  and  of  the  corolla  are  grown  together, 
observe  whether  the  tube  or  the  limb  is  first  formed. 
In  regard  to  stamens,  see  whether  the  filament  and 


THE   LEAF.  245 

anther  appear  together  or  in  succession,  and,  if  in 
succession,  in  what  order. 

Observe  the  formations  of  ovules.  A  long  time 
before  the  opening  of  the  flower,  you  may  see  a  small, 
round  swelling  on  the  placenta,  which  is  the  nucleus 
of  an  ovule.  Soon,  around  this  pimple,  there  appears 
a  circular  rim,  which  rises  toward  the  summit  of  the 
nucleus;  and  then  a  second  rim  appears,  growing 
around  the  first,  and  ending  by  overtaking  and  sur- 
passing it.  These  two  sacs  are  not  entirely  closed, 
but  they  leave  a  circular  opening,  known  to  you  as 
the  micropyle.  Look  carefully  with  your  magnifying- 
glass  for  the  various  parts  of  the  ovule  while  it  is 
growing,  and,  if  you  have  a  microscope,  make  sec- 
tions of  it,  and  study  its  minute  structure. 


CHAPTEK   XIX. 
THE    PLANT    IN    ACTION. 

EXERCISE  LXXV. 
Absorption  of  Food  by  Plants. 

As  long  as  a  seed  is  kept  dry,  the  embryo  remains 
unchanged ;  but,  planted  in  the  soil,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  moisture  and  warmth,  it  begins  to  grow — to 
increase  in  size  and  weight,  and  to  develop  new  or- 
gans. At  the  same  time,  the  rest  of  the  seed  withers 
•and  disappears.  It  has  been  used  up  by  the  growing 
embryo,  while  rooting  itself,  and  opening  its  leaves 
to  the  light  and  air.  The  plant  now  goes  on  inde- 
pendently, adding  new  material  to  its  substance,  in- 
creasing its  size  and  multiplying  its  organs. 

Now,  how  do  growing  plants  get  the  materials  for 
this  increase  of  substance  ? 

This  is  done  in  three  ways.  The  first  is  known 
as  the  principle  of  capillarity.  This  is  the  attraction 
of  surfaces  for  liquids,  which  causes  the  flow  of 
water  upward  into  sponges  and  porous  bodies  gener- 
ally ;  and  its  rise  in  glass-tubes,  with  small  openings 
like  hairs,  and  hence  called  capillary  tubes.  The 
spongy  cellular  tissue,  without  epidermis,  at  the  tips 
of  roots,  is  surrounded  by  moisture,  which  has  de- 
scended, as  rain  and  dew,  through  the  air  and  soil,  dis- 
solving, in  its  passage,  the  various  matters  which  are 
the  food  of  plants.  Just  as  the  water  of  your  wash- 
bowl wets  the  whole  towel  when  a  corner  has  been 


THE   PLANT   IN   ACTION.  247 

carelessly  left  in  it,  so  this  water  of  the  soil,  entering 
by  the  spongioles  and  root-hairs,  passes  from  cell  to 
cell,  and  along  the  vessels  and  fibres  of  which  the 
plant  is  composed. 

A  second  force,  which  aids  in  feeding  plants,  is 
known  as  osmose.  If  you  place  any  porous  mem- 
brane between  two  liquids  of  different  density,  a 
movement  of  these  liquids  through  the  membrane 
at  once  begins.  Suppose  that,  on  one  side  there  is 
syrup,  and  on  the  other  pure  water,  there  will  be  a 
flow  in  both  directions  through  the  membrane ;  the 
water  will  become  sweet,  and  the  syrup  will  be  di- 
luted. But  the  amount  of  flow  is  much  greater  tow- 
ard the  syrup  than  toward  the  water,  and,  if  the  cir- 
cumstances permit,  the  action  will  continue  till  the 
liquids  on  the  opposite  sides  are  alike  in  density. 
You  may  observe  this  effect  in  the  cooking  of  ber- 
ries, as  currants,  for  instance.  Here  the  outer  mem- 
brane, or  skin,  of  the  fruit  is  between  its  internal 
watery  juices  and  the  syrup  in  which  it  is  stewing. 
This  water  passes  outward,  through  the  membrane, 
into  the  syrup  of  the  stew-pan,  in  much  greater 
quantities  than  the  syrup  passes  inward,  and  so  the 
fruit  shrivels.  On  the  contrary,  if  you  take  dried 
currants,  in  which  the  juices  are  concentrated,  and 
the  fruit  already  shrivelled,  and  stew  them  in  pure 
water,  an  opposite  action  takes  place.  The  berry 
now  receives  more  water  than  it  loses,  swells,  and 
assumes  its  natural  shape.  In  both  these  cases  the 
principal  movement  is  that  of  the  pure  or  less  dense 
liquid  toward  the  denser  syrup.  This  is  an  example 
of  what  is  called  osmotic  action. 

Now,  the  cells  of  plants,  like  the  dried  fruit  in 


248  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

the  water,  contain  liquids  denser  than  that  which 
surrounds  them,  and  hence  the  flow  is  from  without 
inward.  When  they  have  thus  been  filled  with  water, 
the  liquid  they  contain  is  so  related  to  that  of  the  next 
inner  cells  that  it  passes  on  by  osmotic  action,  thus 
relieving  the  outer  cells,  when  they  are  again  ready 
for  a  fresh  supply  from  the  soil.  In  this  way  the  ac- 
tion is  kept  up,  from  cell  to  cell,  till  the  liquid  has 
traversed  the  entire  substance  of  the  plant,  from  the 
tips  of  the  roots  to  the  uppermost  leaves. 

The  third  agent  in  causing  the  absorption  of 
liquids  by  plants  is,  the  evaporation  of  water  by  the 
leaves,  and  its  consumption  by  the  growing  buds, 
which  tends  to  produce  a  vacuum  in  the  uppermost 
tissues.  So  that  the  principle  of  suction  here  comes 
in  play  to  pump  up  the  materials  of  the  soil  into  the 
body  of  the  plant. 

In  germination,  the  food  of  the  plant  is  furnished 
by  the  albumen  of  the  seed,  or  by  the  gorged  coty- 
ledons of  the  embryo  itself,  as  in  peas  and  beans. 
This  food  is  changed  from  the  insoluble  to  the  soluble 
state  by  the  action  of  warmth  and  moisture ;  is  dis- 
solved, and,  by  capillary  and  osmotic  action,  is  carried 
into  the  radicle,  and  used  by  the  growing  cells  in  the 
development  of  the  plumule  and  the  roots.  By  the 
time  this  supply  is  exhausted,  the  growing  plantlet  is 
able  to  live  upon  material  furnished  by  the  soil.  Its 
first  food  is  the  starch,  and  other  substances  stored 
up  in  the  seed  the  year  before,  and  is  organic  mat- 
ter. But  the  substances  taken  from  the  soil,  dis- 
solved in  water,  are  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and 
earthy  and  alkaline  salts — mineral  matters  which 
cannot  serve  in  building  up  the  plant's  fabric ;  these 


THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION.  249 

are  changed  from  the  mineral  to  the  organic  state  by 
the  plant  itself. 

The  root,  then,  is  an  important  organ  of  absorp- 
tion. Its  cellular  extremities  are  very  permeable, 
and  the  water  of  the  soil  tends  to  penetrate  them. 
By  the  various  agencies  just  explained,  it  rises, 
through  the  cells  and  ducts,  to  the  top  of  the  plant, 
and  escapes  into  the  air  by  way  of  the  leaves. 
Plants  are  said  to  absorb  carbonic  acid,  ammonia, 
and  sometimes  vapor  of  water,  directly  from  the  air 
by  their  leaves,  but  the  point  is  not  well  established. 


EXERCISE  LXXVI. 
Evaporation  and  Digestion. 

When  the  water  of  rains  and  dews,  with  the  ma- 
terials it  has  dissolved  from  air  and  earth,  enters  the 
plant,  it  takes  the  name  of  ascending  sap.  It  thick- 
ens a  little  as  it  rises,  by  dissolving  substances  con- 
tained in  the  cells,  and,  on  reaching  the  leaves,  it 
undergoes  various  changes,  and  a  large  portion  of  its 
water  escapes  into  the  air  by  evaporation.  The  ra- 
pidity of  its  exhalation  depends  upon  sunshine,  the 
warmth  and  dryness  of  the  air,  and  the  structure  of 
the  leaves.  A  sunflower,  with  five  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  sixteen  inches  of  leaf-surface,  was  found, 
by  experiment,  to  exhale  from  twenty  to  thirty  ounces 
in  a  day,  while  it  lost  only  three  ounces  in  a  warm, 
dry  night,  and  none  at  all  on  a  dewy  night.  A  vine 
with  twelve  square  feet  of  evaporating  surface  ex- 


250  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

haled  five  or  six  ounces  a  day ;  and  a  young  apple- 
tree,  with  eleven  square  feet  of  foliage,  lost  nine 
ounces  a  day.  Hales  calculated  that  the  force  which 
impels  the  sap  in  a  vine^in  summer-time  is  five  times 
as  great  as  that  which  drives  the  blood  through  the 
large  arteries  of  a  horse ;  but  the  rate  of  evaporation 
has  a  large  share  in  determining  the  force  of  the  flow. 

The  influence  of  evaporation  in  starting  the  flow 
of  sap  is  seen  when  a  plant,  with  a  certain  time  of 
leafing,  is  grafted  upon  a  stock  which  puts  forth  its 
own  foliage  at  a  later  period.  The  sap  starts  with 
the  expansion  of  the  leaves  upon  the  grafted  stem, 
and,  of  course,  earlier  than  usual.  Again,  when  the 
branches  of  a  tree  are  enclosed  and  warmed  in  win- 
ter, so  that  the  buds  swell,  the  sap  of  the  trunk  is  set 
in  motion  to  supply  the  demand. 

It  is  chiefly  through  the  stomata  that  evaporation 
takes  place.  Situated  in  the  epidermis,  directly  over 
the  intercellular  spaces,  they  permit  the  process  when 
water  is  abundant,  and  arrest  it  when  the  supply  fails. 
Their  agency  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for,  unless 
the  surplus  water  of  the  ascending  sap  is  got  rid  of, 
the  plant  cannot  digest  its  food ;  and,  unless  the  ac- 
tion of  the  sun  and  air  is  checked  when  the  supply  is 
limited,  it  would  wither  and  perish.  In  dry  weather, 
from  lack  of  moisture,  the  stomata  shorten,  straighten, 
and  so  close  the  orifice,  and  put  a  stop  to  evapora- 
tion ;  but,  when  full  of  water,  they  lengthen,  curve 
outward,  and  open  a  free  passage  for  the  escape  of  the 
abundant  moisture. 

In  some  plants,  as  the  cactus,  the  skin  is  so  thick 
and  dense  that,  succulent  as  they  are,  they  yet  live 
and  flourish  in  dry,  hot  climates. 


THE  PLANT  IN   ACTION.  251 

As  we  have  before  stated,  the  various  inorganic 
substances,  taken  from  the  soil  by  the  roots,  and  from 
the  air  by  the  leaves,  are  the  food  of  plants.  In  the 
leaf-cells  they  undergo  remarkable  and  very  complex 
changes,  some  of  which  are  understood,  while  others 
are  not,  and  which  it  is  the  proper  business  of  chemis- 
try to  explain.  The  most  important  action  of  the  leaf 
is  the  reduction  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  ammonia,  and 
water,  to  their  elements,  which  are  used  for  the  forma- 
tion of  organic  compounds.  This  may  be  regarded  as 
the  first  step  in  the  process  of  organization,  and  it  takes 
place  in  the  leaf  only  under  the  influence  of  light. 
Light  is  the  motive  power  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
and  the  countless  myriads  of  expanded  leaves  are  all 
little  machines,  upon  which  it  takes  effect.  Light 
impels  the  actions  of  a  leaf  as  falling  water  impels  a 
water-wheel.  The  light  is  an  active  force,  which  is  ex- 
pended upon  the  leaf,  is  absorbed,  and  produces  chem- 
ical decompositions.  Carbon,  the  substance  of  char- 
coal, is  thus  separated  from  carbonic  acid,  and  is  ready 
to  be  used  in  the  production  of  organic  compounds, 
of  which  it  is  a  universal  constituent.  The  decompo- 
sition of  water  and  ammonia  gives  also  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen,  and  these,  with  oxygen,  form  the  chief  bulk 
of  all  organized  substances. 

Animals  have  no  such  power  of  creating  the  or- 
ganic substances  which  compose  them.  So  that  the 
whole  animal  world,  and  the  entire  vegetable  king- 
dom, may  be  said  to  have  their  origin  in  leaves. 
But  it  is  only  th»  first  step  that  is  here  taken.  After 
carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia,  are  decomposed, 
their  elements  are  recombined  in  new  groups  under 
the  constructive  agency  of  the  plant,  and  their  sub- 


252  THE   SECOND   BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 

sequent  transformations  may  go  on  in  all  parts  of 
the  living  structure  to  which  the  substances  are  con- 
veyed by  circulation.  It  is  only  in  daylight  that  the 
initial  step  is  taken  in  the  green  leaf;  but  at  all  times, 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  the  internal  elaborations 
and  the  growth  of  parts  may  go  on. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that,  so  far  as  the  air 
is  concerned,  plants  and  animals  perform  opposite 
offices.  The  lung  and  the  leaf  antagonize  each  other. 
Animals  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  return  car- 
bonic acid  to  it ;  and,  as  carbonic  acid  is  a  poison,  if 
there  were  no  plants  in  the  world,  animals  would,  in 
sufficient  time,  contaminate  it  so  that  it  would  be 
unfit  to  breathe.  But  the  poisonous  exhalations  of 
animals  are  absorbed  by  leaves,  and  destroyed,  so 
that  the  entire  vegetable  kingdom  acts  as  a  vast 
purifier  of  the  air. 

You  may  very  easily  observe  the  powerful  influ- 
ence which  light  exerts  upon  plants.  Remove  a 
sprouting  potato  from  the  dark  cellar  into  the  sun- 
shine ;  its  pale,  watery  shoots  will  quickly  begin  to 
turn  green.  The  first  effect  of  light  is  thus  to  pro- 
duce chlorophyll,  and  this  chlorophyll  becomes  the 
medium  of  subsequent  changes.  Observe  whether 
it  is  the  upper  or  under  surface  of  leaves  which  is 
exposed  to  the  light.  Whichever  it  be,  reverse  it, 
and  note  whether  the  leaf  resumes  its  former  posi- 
tion. Place  a  movable  plant — one  growing  in  a  box 
or  pot — with  an  erect  stem,  in  a  window,  where  the 
sunshine  will  fall  upon  it.  After  a  little  time  observe 
the  attitude  of  the  stem.  If  you  find  it  bent  over 
toward  the  light,  turn  it  round,  and  see  if  it  will 
bend  back  again. 


THE  PLANT   IN   ACTION.  253 

EXEKCISE  LXXVII. 
The  Circulation  of  Plants. 

Although  the  movement  of  sap  is  not,  like  the 
flow  of  blood  in  animals,  along  a  definitely  traceable 
system  of  vessels,  yet,  in  the  larger  plants,  experi- 
ments show  that  it  passes  upward  by  one  route  and 
downward  by  another.  In  woody  dicotyledons,  the 
crude,  or  ascending  sap,  rises  inside  the  cambium, 
and  chiefly  through  the  woody  bundles  of  the  outer 
circles  of  wood,  hence  called  sap-woody  the  inner  por- 
tion of  the  tree,  or  heart-wood,  having  become  so 
solid  as  to  obstruct  its  passage.  You  may  find  proof 
of  this  in  many  ways.  If  you  remove  a  ring  of  sap- 
wood  from  the  stem  of  a  tree,  its  branches  wither 
and  die,  while  hollow  trees  may  flourish,  and  carry 
on  all  the  processes  of  life.  If  you  observe  trees  that 
have  been  cut  down  in  spring,  you  can  easily  see  in 
what  portions  the  sap  is  most  abundant.  This  crude 
sap  may  be  obtained  in  spring,  by  making  incisions 
into  the  sap-wood,  from  which  it  will  trickle,  or  some- 
times even  flow  in  streams.  It  is  nearly  colorless,  and 
tastes  of  the  substances  it  has  dissolved  from  the  tis- 
sues of  the  tree.  In  monocotyledons,  the  rising  sap 
has  a  much  freer  and  wider  course  along  the  scattered 
bundles  of  fibro-vascular  tissue. 

The  elaborated,  or  descending  sap,  passes  along 
the  inner  layers  of  the  bark,  and  furnishes  the  cam- 
bium with  material  for  the  growth  of  cells,  and  nour- 
ishment for  the  young  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 
You  may  stop  its  descent  by  removing  a  ring  of  bark 
from  the  stem  or  branch  of  a  tree  or  shrub,  but  no 
wood  will  be  formed  below  the  mutilation.  The 


254  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

ringing  of  fruit-trees  is  one  of  the  means  of  increas- 
ing the  product  of  fruit  above  the  ring.  The  forma- 
tion of  potatoes  may  be  prevented  by  ringing  the 
cortical  layers  of  the  stem.  Tie  a  band  tightly 
around  the  bark  of  a  young  branch.  After  a  little 
time  the  branch  swells,  and  forms  a  cushion  above 
the  ligature,  while,  below,  it  preserves  its  former 
size.  When  bark  is  accidentally  rubbed  off,  the  new 
growth,  by  which  the  place  is  gradually  covered, 
comes  from  above.  In  monocotyledons,  the  elabo- 
rated sap  descends  along  the  fibres  of  the  liber  of 
each  of  the  woody  bundles,  and  in  this  way  furnishes 
the  cambium  with  nourishing  materials. 

In  brief,  then,  water,  containing  the  dissolved 
food  of  plants,  is  absorbed  by  the  extremities  of  the 
roots.  It  rises  through  the  latest-formed  wood  to 
the  cellular  tissue  of  the  leaves,  and  is  there  submit- 
ted to  the  action  of  air  and  light.  Changed  to  elab- 
orated sap,  it  descends  by  the  inner  layers  of  the 
bark,  yielding  up,  in  its  course,  nutritious  material  to 
nourish  all  parts  of  the  plant,  till  it  reaches  the  root, 
from  which  it  started. 

Such  is  the  course  of  the  circulation  in  spring, 
when  the  leaves  are  young  and  active.  Later  in  the 
season,  as  the  woody  tissues  are  more  hardened,  the 
sap  rises  in  the  cellular  tissue.  In  autumn,  the  leaves 
are  obstructed  by  the  deposits  of  mineral  matter,  so 
that  sap  cannot  flow  in  them ;  they  dry  up,  and  fall, 
evaporation  ceases,  and,  with  it,  the  movement  of  the 
sap.  The  so-called  spongioles,  however,  continue  to 
act,  and  so  the  tree  is  gorged  with  liquid  before  the 
winter  sets  in.  This  liquid  dissolves  the  various  pe- 
culiar matters  deposited  in  the  cells  of  the  plant,  and 


THE   PLANT   IN   ACTION.  255 

is  ready  to  flow  in  spring,  when  the  tree  is  tapped. 
As  the  sap  flows  from  the  trunk,  the  supply  is  kept 
up  by  the  action  of  the  roots. 


EXEKCISE  LXXVIII. 
The  Reproduction  of  Plants. 

The  processes  described  in  the  preceding  ex- 
ercises of  this  chapter  are  only  concerned  in  the 
growth  of  the  plant.  As  they  are  carried  on  by  the 
root,  stem,  and  leaves,  these  parts  are  known  as  the 
organs  of  growth,  or  vegetative  organs.  But  the  last 
and  crowning  act  in  the  life  of  the  plant  is  the  pro- 
duction of  seed,  and  in  this  process  the  flower  is  the 
portion  immediately  concerned.  Flowers  are  hence 
called  the  organs  of  reproduction.  The  influence  of 
pollen  upon  the  pistil  of  a  flower  is  called  fertiliza- 
tion. 

Except  in  rare  instances,  unless  the  ovules  of  a 
plant  are  acted  upon  by  pollen,  seeds  do  not  appear. 
This  is  proved  both  by  observation  and  experi- 
ment. You  may  prevent  the  production  of  seed  by 
cutting  away  the  stigma  of  the  flower  before  the 
ripening  of  the  pollen.  In  the  case  of  ?  flowers 
there  is  no  seed,  unless  they  are  accessible  to  the 
pollen  of  <$  flowers.  A  $  palm-tree,  growing  in  a 
green-house  at  Berlin,  for  twenty-four  years  had  not 
borne  seed ;  but  when  some  pollen,  sent  from  a  dis- 
tance by  mail,  was  artificially  supplied  to  the  stigmas 
of  the  tree,  for  the  first  time  it  bore  fruit.  Again,  for 
eighteen  years  it  was  sterile,  and  in  the  same  way  it 


256  THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

was  again  fertilized  by  pollen,  sent  through  the  post. 
The  date  is  a  dioecious  tree,  upon  which  the  Eastern 
countries  depend  for  food.  They  suspend  panicles  of 
<3  flowers  near  the  single  $  ones,  to  insure  a  crop  of 
the  fruit.  One  of  the  ways  in  which  these  people 
make  war  is,  to  destroy  the  $  date-trees ;  the  ?  ones 
are,  of  course,  barren,  and  famine  ensues. 

The  usual  time  of  fertilization  is  when  the  flower 
is  most  perfect  in  its  colors  and  fragrance.  In  the 
course  of  Nature  there  are  many  ways  in  which  the 
pollen  reaches  the  stigma.  Either  the  stamens  are 
longest,  and  it  falls  upon  the  stigma  below,  or,  if 
shortest,  the  flower  droops,  as  in  the  fuschia,  and 
then,  also,  the  pollen  falls  upon  the  stigma,  or  it  may 
be  thrown  upon  the  stigma  by  spontaneous  jerks  of 
the  stamen,  or  the  anthers  burst  with  violence,  and 
so  produce  the  same  result.  Pollen  is  also  wafted  by 
the  winds  from  flower  to  flower,  or  conveyed  by  in- 
sects in  their  explorations  for  honey.  In  such  plants 
as  orchids,  where  the  pollen  is  in  masses,  self-fertili- 
zation is  impossible;  the  pistil  can  be  acted  upon 
only  by  pollen  brought  to  it  from  other  plants.  By 
these  various  means  pollen  of  all  sorts  is  distributed 
upon  all  sorts  of  flowers,  but  only  that  of  the  same, 
or  of  nearly-related  species,  takes  effect. 

You  know  the  structure  of  pollen-grains,  and  that 
the  stigma  is  a  mass  of  moist,  cellular  tissue,  without 
epidermis.  Landed  upon  this  conductive  tissue,  the 
pollen-cell  absorbs  moisture,  and  its  elastic  in  tine 
swells,  and  pushes  through  the  openings,  or  thin 
places  of  the  more  rigid  ex  tine,  protruding  a  sort  of 
tube,  which  grows  downward,  into  the  spongy  centre 
of  the  style,  till  it  reaches  the  ovary.  Here  it  is  met 


THE   PLANT   IN   ACTION.  257 

by  the  ovules,  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  nucleus, 
through  the  opening  in  the  coats,  at  the  apex  of  the 
ovule  (the  micropyle).  Afterward  the  embryo  ap- 
pears, just  within  the  micropyle,  with  its  radicle 
pointing  to  the  orifice.  Before  fertilization  takes 
place,  the  ovule  prepares  for  it  by  the  formation,  at 
the  summit  of  the  nucleus,  of  a  special  cell,  called 
the  embryo-sac^  within  which  the  embryo  is  formed. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  contents  of  the  pollen  grain 
pass  into  the  embryo-sac  by  osmotic  action.  In  the 
case  of  cone-bearing  trees,  the  scales  turn  back,  and 
expose  their  inner  surface  at  the  time  when  the  air 
is  filled  with  the  pollen  from  the  $  catkins,  which 
is  thus  enabled  to  act  directly  upon  the  naked  ovules. 
Then  the  scales  close  down,  and  remain  till  the  seeds 
are  ripe,  after  which  they  again  open,  and  thus  permit 
the  seeds  to  escape.  If  you  make  sections  of  a  pistil — 
when  the  pollen  is  in  perfection — with  a  microscope, 
you  may  see  these  things  for  yourself.  The  spectacle 
of  a  pollen-covered  stigma  is  one  of  great  beauty  and 
interest,  even  with  a  good  magnifying-glass.  After 
fertilization,  the  flower  withers,  and  the  vigor  of  the 
plant  is  spent  in  the  growth  and  perfection  of  the 
fruit. 

REPRODUCTION  OF  FERNS. — All  over  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  prothallus  (Fig.  352),  cellular,  pimple-like 
bodies  are  formed.  These  projections  consist  of  four 
tiers  of  cells,  with  a  canal  running  down  the  centre. 
They  project  below  the  lower  surface  of  the  prothal- 
lus, and,  when  mature,  have  an  open  mouth.  The 
canal  leads  to  a  basal  cell  (embryo-sac).  These  bodies 
are  the  pistillidia  or  archegonia  of  ferns. 

ANTHERIDIA. — These  also  are  cellular  projections, 


258  THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

formed  on  the  under  surface  of  the  prothallus,  but 
most  abundantly  near  the  centre,  among  the  rootlets 
(Fig.  352).  They  are  composed  of  one  or  two  cells, 
developed  from  the  lower  face  of  one  of  the  cells  of 
the  prothallus.  Within  these  cells  another  is  formed, 
in  which  soon  appear  a  number  of  minute  vesicles, 
called  sperm-cells.  When  mature,  the  top  of  this 
antheridial  cell  falls  off,  like  a  lid,  and  the  sperm- 
cells  escape.  Each  of  these,  when  ejected  from  the 
antheridium,  emits  an  anthrozoid,  a  minute,  ciliated 
body,  which  has  the  power  of  spontaneous  move- 
ment (Fig.  414).  It  is  by  the  passage  of  these  an- 
therozoids  down  the  canal  of  the  pistillidia  that  the 
corpuscle  of  the  embryo-sac  is  fertilized.  From  the 
embryo  thus  produced,  the  young  fern  is  developed, 
which,  at  maturity,  produces  sporanges  and  spores. 


EXERCISE  LXXIX. 
The  Movements  of  Plants. 

It  is  usually  considered  that  one  of  the  prime  dis- 
tinctions between  animals  and  plants  is,  that  the  for- 
mer have  the  power  of  spontaneous  motion,  while 
the  latter  do  not.  But  plants  do  manifest  this  faculty 
in  various  ways,  and  in  a  quite  remarkable  degree. 
It  is  seen  in  the  very  simplest  forms  of  plant-life. 
These  are  the  Algse,  the  lowest  class  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  to  which  sea-weeds  and  fresh-water  confer- 
vae  belong.  The  mode  of  reproduction  of  the  algae 
is  obscure ;  but,  in  certain  fresh-water  kinds,  it  takes 


THE   PLANT  IN   ACTION.  259 

place  by  what  are  called  "  zoospores,"  and  which  are 
represented  in  Fig.  414.  It  appears,  from  the  latest  ex- 
aminations, that  these  zoospores,  which  are  of  extreme 
minuteness,  are  of  ovoid  shape,  and  are  partially  or 
wholly  covered  with  those  extremely  fine,  hair-like 


FIG.  414. 


bodies,  known  as  cilia,  which  have  the  power  of 
spontaneously  vibrating,  or  lashing  backward  and 
forward.  They  exist  upon  the  surface  of  animal 
membranes,  and,  by  their  rapid,  incessant,  whipping 
motion,  they  cause  the  agitation  and  circulation  of 
fluids  upon  such  surfaces.  Now,  as  soon  as  these 
minute  zoospores  free  themselves  from  the  parent- 
cell,  the  cilia  begin  to  vibrate  with  great  rapidity, 
the  vibrations  being  accompanied  by  a  movement  of 
rotation  of  the  cell,  and  the  result  is  a  quick  motion 
of  the  body  through  the  water,  similar  to  the  move- 
ments of  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life.  After  the 
motion  has  continued  from  half  an  hour  to  several 
hours,  the  zoospores  settle  down,  lose  their  cilia,  and 
give  rise,  by  cell-division,  to  new  organisms,  resem- 
bling the  parent.  (Some  algae  have  a  peculiar  undu- 
latory  motion,  hence  they  are  called  oscillatoria.) 

In  the  case  of  higher  plants,  there  are  many  capa- 
ble of  peculiar  motions,  some  of  which  seem  to  re- 


260 


THE    SECOND   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


semble  the  sensitive  movements  of  animals.     The 
most  remarkable  example  is  that  known  as  the  sensi- 


Fio.  415. 


tive-plant.     Fig.  415  represents  a  leaf  of  it,  with  its 
leaves  expanded,  as  when  undisturbed  in  sunshine. 


FIG.  416. 


THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION. 


261 


If,  now,  it  be  touched  by  the  hand,  or  the  warm 
breath,  the  whole  leaf  is  quickly  affected,  and  col- 
lapses. First,  the  leaflets  close  in  pairs,  bringing 
their  upper  faces  together,  and,  inclining  forward, 
then  the  four  outspread  leaves  approach  each  other, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  main  leaf-stalk  turns 
downward,  so  that  the  leaf  presents  the  appearance 
shown  in  Fig.  416. 

Another  remarkable  instance  of  sensitiveness  in 
a  plant  occurs  in  a  case  of  the  Venus's-Flytrap  of 
North  Carolina,  represented  in  Fig.  417.  It  is  the 

FIG.  417. 


leaf  that  plays  the  part  of  the  trap,  both  in  its  struct- 
ure and  in  its  action.  The  midrib  of  each  leaf  plays 
the  part  of  a  hinge,  while  its  upper  surface  is  covered 
with  fine  bristles,  and  its  margin  is  sharply  toothed. 


262  THE   SECOND  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

When  the  surface  is  touched,  the  leaf  suddenly  closes, 
like  a  steel-trap,  and,  if  the  intruding  substance  be  an 
insect,  it  is  immediately  imprisoned,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  If  nothing  is  caught,  the  trap  soon  reopens 
of  itself,  but,  if  there  is  a  victim,  it  is  held  with  con- 
siderable force. 

This  irritability,  or  sensitiveness,  seen  in  leaves, 
is  not  uncommon,  also,  in  the  flower.  Spontaneous 
motions  occur  in  the  petals  of  the  sundew,  and  in 
the  lip  of  the  corolla  of  several  of  the  Orchis  tribe. 
It  occurs  in  the  organs  of  reproduction,  and  is  then 
connected  with  the  process  of  fertilization  of  the 
ovule.  The  stamens  of  the  various  species  of  bar- 
berry exhibit  this  irritability  to  a  remarkable  degree. 
If  touched  with  a  pin,  or  other  object,  at  the  base  of 
the  inside  filament,  the  stamen  will  spring  violently 
forward  from  its  place  within  the  petal,  so  as  to  bring 
the  anther  in  contact  with  the  stigma.  In  Fig.  418 

FIG.  4ia 


the  first  position  is  shown  at  #,  and  the  second  at  I. 
After  a  time  the  stamen  slowly  resumes  its  position. 
It  might  seem  as  if  this  arrangement  were  designed 


THE    PLANT   IN    ACTION.  263 

to  secure  the  fertilization  of  the  pistil  from  the  pollen 
of  its  own  flower.  But  this  is  not  so.  The  move- 
ment takes  place  when  an  insect,  in  quest  of  the 
honey  in  the  glands  at  the  base  of  the  pistil,  touches 
the  inside  of  one  of  the  stamens.  The  pollen  is  thus 
thrown  on  the  insect,  which  conveys  it  to  the  next 
flower  it  visits,  and,  leaving  some  of  it  on  the  stigma, 
brings  about  cross-fertilization. 

Interesting  motions,  dependent  upon  contact,  are 
also  seen  in  the  tendrils  of  many  climbing  plants, 
which  bend  and  alter  the  position  at  the  touch. 

CLIMBING  PLANTS. — These  are  of  various  kinds,  and 
are  so  common  as  to  be  easily  found  by  anybody  who 
will  look  out  for  them.  When  a  plant  is  seen  to  be- 
long to  this  class,  the  first  question,  to  be  considered 
is,  How  does  it  climb  upon  its  support  ?  Does  it  twist 
around  it  (twining)  ?  Does  it  put  out  fingers,  roots, 
or  suckers,  for  attachment  (root-climbers)  ?  or  does  it 
shoot  out  tendrils  (tendril-climbers)?  The  tendrils 
of  climbing  plants  exhibit  interesting  motions,  de- 
pendent upon  contact.  They  bend,  and  alter  their 
position  at  the  touch.  This  curling  effect,  which  en- 
sues from  contact,  is  represented  in  Fig.  419.  The 
motion  consequent  on  a  single  touch  increases  for  a 
time,  then  ceases,  and,  after  a  few  hours,  the  tendril 
uncurls,  and  resumes  its  former  position.  Tendrils 
have  a  tendency  to  curl  round  any  object  with  which 
they  come  into  contact,  except  other  tendrils  of  the 
same  plant.  It  has  been  remarked  as  curious  that,  in 
some  exceedingly  sensitive  plants,  the  falling  of  drops 
of  rain  on  the  tendril  produces  no  movement.  Ten- 
drils are  contrivances  for  climbing ;  they  stretch  out 

in  search  of  support,  and  move  through  circuits  to 
12 


264 


THE    SECOND   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 


find  points  of  attachment.     When  one  has  secured  a 
hold,  it  shortens  by  curling  up  so  as  to  draw  the  main 


FIG.  419. 


stem  nearer  to  its  support,  then  it  rapidly  becomes 
thicker  and  stronger  than  before. 

Tendrils  of  the  bigonia  (Fig.  420)  are  described 
by  Mr.  Darwin  as  having  a  revolving  movement,  and, 
when  they  grow  through  a  branch,  and  come  into 
contact  with  the  twig,  the  points  bend  in  like  claws, 
and  the  tendril  holds  on  to  the  twig  exactly  like  a 
bird  when  perched.  The  same  naturalist  says  that 
the  tendrils  of  this  plant  will  slowly  travel  over  the 
surface  of  a  piece  of  wood,  and,  when  the  point,  or 
"  toe,"  of  one  of  them  finds  a  hole  or  crack,  it  inserts 


THE   PLANT   IN    ACTION. 


265 


itself,  and  it  will  sometimes,  after  many  hours,  with- 
draw from  one  fissure,  as  if  it  did  not  find  it  satis- 
factory, and  seek  another.  The.re  is  something  won- 


FIG.  420. 


derfully  like  instinct  in  all  this.  Prof.  Gray  remarks : 
"  If  we  watch  the  tender  passion-flowers  which  show 
the  revolving  so  well  on  a  sultry  day,  we  may  see 
with  wonder  that,  when  a  tendril,  sweeping  hori- 
zontally, comes  round  so  that  its  base  nears  the  par- 
ent-stem, rising  above  it,  it  stops  short,  rises  stiffly 
upright,  moves  on  in  this  position  until  it  passes  ty 
the  stem,  then  rapidly  comes  down  again  to  the  hori- 
zontal position,  and  moves  on  so  until  it  again  ap- 
proaches and  again  avoids  the  impending  obstacle." 

Observe  the  structure  and  watch  the  movements 
of  tendrils  in  pumpkin,  squash,  gourd,  and  grape 


266         THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

vines.  "When  a  tendril  has  effected  an  attachment, 
and  both  ends  are  fast,  how  does  it  continue  to  coil  ? 
How  do  the  tendrils  of  grape-vines  move  in  respect 
to  the  light  ?  In  what  way  do  they  seize  the  support  ? 
In  what  way  do  the  tendrils  of  the  Virginia  creeper 
and  ivy  attach  themselves  to  walls  2  On  a  sultry  day 
rub  gently,  with  a  stick  or  with  the  finger,  the  whole 
length  of  a  vigorous  tendril,  and  note  the  effect,  and 
the  time  in  which  it  is  produced. 

TWINEES. — Some  plants  rise  by  twisting  around 
their  support,  as  in  the  familiar  case  of  the  bean,  or 
the  hop,  or  the  morning-glory.  The  extremity  of 
the  stem  of  a  bean,  which  has  grown  a  foot  or  two 
beyond  its  support,  will  extend  from  it  in  a  nearly 
horizontal  direction.  If  its  position  at  a  certain  time 
be  noticed,  and  then,  if  it  be  observed  again  some 
time  afterward,  it  will  be  found  to  have  changed 
place,  and  to  point  successively  in  different  directions. 
The  end  of  the  stem  thus  revolves  in  a  circle  round 
its  support,  and  the  same  kind  of  plant  always  turns 
in  the  same  direction,  although  some  go  with  the  sun 
and  some  against  it.  The  twining  is,  of  course,  the 
simple  result  of  revolving  in  a  circle,  for,  if  the  stem 
reaches  away,  and  is  arrested  at  any  point  by  an  ob- 
stacle, the  portion  beyond  continues  to  move  round 
in  the  same  direction,  and,  as  it  lengthens,  it  of  course 
twines  around  the  impediment. 

Observe  the  attitude  of  a  stein  of  the  bean,  hop, 
or  morning-glory,  that  overtops  its  supports.  Mark 
the  position,  and  observe  it  again  in  an  hour  or  'two 
afterward.  What  is  the  direction  taken  in  each 
case  ?  How  does  temperature  affect  the  result  ?  Do 
they  move  in  the  night  ?  Make  dots  with  ink  along 


THE    PLANT    IN    ACTION.  267 

the  upper  side  of  the  outstretched  stem,  and  see  if 
the  dots  continue  in  that  position. 

Make  a  circuit  of  the  garden  and  grounds  in  the 
daytime,  and  note  the  appearance  and  position  of 
the  leaves  of  each  of  the  plants  you  encounter.  Ob- 
serve the  attitude  of  the  petiole  and  the  blade,  and 
the  degree  of  flattening  that  the  leaf  exhibits.  Note, 
also,  the  state  of  the  floral  organs.  Observe  them 
again  in  the  evening,  or  at  nightfall.  Flowers  that 
were  open  by  day,  and  are  now  closed,  should  be  ob- 
served again  on  the  following  day,  to  see  if  they  re- 
open. If  they  do,  watch  them,  and  discover  their 
times  of  opening  and  closing.  If  they  do  not,  dis- 
cover, if  you  can,  how  long  they  remain  open. 

Have  the  leaves  of  any  of  the  species  observed  in 
the  daytime  assumed  a  different  position  ? 

When  certain  movements  of  leaves  and  petals,  as 
curvature  or  folding,  take  place  at  particular  times, 
and  the  new  position  is  retained  for  a  certain  period, 
such  movements  are  called  the  sleep  of  plants. 


CHAPTEE    XX. 
COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   PLANTS. 

EXERCISE   LXXX. 
How  to  gather,  press,  and  mount  Plants. 

FIG.  421. 


IMPLEMENTS. — For  your  botanical  excursions  you 
will  need  a  small  trowel  for  digging  roots  (Fig.  421), 
or  a  large,  strong,  clasp-knife,  that  will  serve  both  for 
digging  and  for  cutting  branches ;  a  strong  portfolio, 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  long,  and  ten  or  twelve 
inches  wide,  tied  with  tape  or  a  strong  cord.  It  should 
be  made  of  two  stout  sheets  of  pasteboard,  separated 
at  the  back  (Fig.  422),  and  will  be  all  the  better  if 
covered  with  enamelled  cloth,  to  protect  it  from 


COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING   PLANTS. 


269 


moisture.  This  portfolio  should  contain  a  stock  of 
thin,  unsized  paper,  such  as  the  poorest  printing- 
paper,  or  grocer's  tea-paper,  and  a  close  tin  box,  for 
preserving  specimens,  to  be  examined  at  home  while 
fresh.  Such  a  box  is  shown  strapped  upon  the  col- 


FIG.  422. 


t    ' 


lector,  in  Fig.  421.  It  shuts  close,  and  has  two  com- 
partments :  the  large  one,  with  a  door  in  the  side, 
nearly  as  long  as  the  box ;  and  a  small  one,  two  or 
three  inches  deep,  with  a  door  in  the  end,  for  re- 
ceiving small,  delicate  specimens  of  any  kind. 

WHAT  TO  GET. — Specimens  that  are  intended  for 
preservation  must  be  gathered  with  great  care,  and 
pains  must  be  taken  to  get  average  examples  of  each 
species.  If  possible,  they  should  be  gathered  in  dry 
weather.  Herbs  should  be  gathered  when  in  flower 
and  in  fruit.  They  should  be  taken  by  the  root,  and, 
if  it  is  not  too  large,  this  should  be  pressed,  along 
with  the  rest,  to  show  whether  the  plant  is  annual, 
biennial,  or  perennial.  Thick  roots,  bulbs,  tubers, 
and  the  like,  should  be  thinned  with  a  knife,  or  cut 
in  slices,  lengthwise.  Buds  and  fruit  should  be  ob- 
tained, as  well  as  the  expanded  flower.  All  three 
may  sometimes  be  found  upon  the  same  plant,  but 


270  THE    SECOND    BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

generally  they  will  have  to  be  obtained  at  different 
times,  unless,  indeed,  you  are  able  to  find  buds, 
flowers,  and  fruit,  all  at  once,  upon  plants  in  differ- 
ent stages  of  development. 

Small  herbs  may  be  preserved  entire.  If  the 
radicle  leaves  are  withered  at  flowering-time,  get  a 
younger  specimen  in  which  they  are  fresh.  When 
herbs  are  too  large  for  this,  they  may  be  cut  in  sec- 
tions, or  folded,  or  you  must  be  content  with  branch- 
es and  specimen-leaves  taken  from  near  the  root.  In 
the  case  of  woody  plants,  one  or  more  shoots  should 
be  taken,  bearing  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit.  Both 
sterile  and  fertile  flowers  should  be  obtained  from 
monoecious  and  dioecious  plants. 

TRANSPORTING.  —  The  specimens,  when  freshly 
gathered,  should  be  laid  between  the  sheets  of  the 
portfolio,  the  more  delicate  ones  being  carefully 
placed  between  sheets  of  drying-paper,  so  that,  on 
reaching  home,  they  can  be  transferred  to  the  press 
without  being  disturbed.  The  folds  and  doublings 
of  leaves  and  petals  of  ordinary  plants,  occasioned 
by  the  wind,  in  the  open  field,  are  easily  smoothed 
out  when  putting  the  plants  in  press. 

PRESSING. — As  good  an  arrangement  as  any  for 
pressing  plants  consists  of  two  stout  boards,  that  will 
not  warp  or  bend,  between  which  the  specimens  are 
placed,  with  any  convenient  weight — as  stones,  or 
masses  of  iron,  of  not  less  than  fifty  or  sixty  pounds 
—laid  on  the  top.  Between  the  plants  you  put  layers 
of  drying-paper.  Newspapers  answer  very  well  for 
this  purpose.  They  should  be  made  into  packets  of 
about  a  dozen  thicknesses,  stitched  together.  Lay 
the  plants  smoothly  between  these  packets.  Put 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   PLANTS.  271 

unsized  paper  between  the  parts  of  a  specimen  that 
overlap  each  other,  to  prevent  moulding,  and  hasten 
drying.  Be  careful  to  dispose  the  plants  so  that  they 
will  not  lie  directly  above  each  other ;  keep  the  top 
of  the  pile  as  level  as  possible,  to  equalize  the  press- 
ure. The  number  of  packets  interposed  will  depend 
upon  the  juiciness  of  the  plants,  and  must  be  left  to 
your  own  judgment.  When  plants  are  first  put  in 
press,  the  papers  should  be  changed  once  a  day  for 
three  or  four  days,  after  which  every  other  day  will 
answer.  When  the  drying  packets  are  changed, 
they  should  not  be  left  lying  upon  the  floor,  but 
should  be  dried  upon  a  line  stretched  across  the 
room,  or  in  the  open  air. 

MOUNTING  OF  SPECIMENS. — When  the  plants  are 
dry,  the  next  thing  is  to  mount  them.  For  this  pur- 
pose you  will  need — 1.  Strong,  heavy,  white  paper, 
larger  than  foolscap — sheets  1TJ  inches  in  length  by 
11J  inches  in  width,  is  a  size,  on  many  accounts,  de- 
sirable ;  2.  Corrosive  sublimate,  for  poisoning  plants, 
to  keep  off  insects ;  3.  Glue,  to  fasten  them  upon 
the  paper. 

Dissolve  about  an  ounce  of  sublimate  in  a  quart 
of  alcohol.  It  should  be  labelled,  and  kept  with  great 
care,  as  it  is  very  poisonous.  A  simple  way  of  ap- 
plying the  solution  is  to  pour  a  little  into  a  large,  flat 
platter,  so  as  to  cover  the  bottom,  and  "  immerse  the 
whole  specimen  for  a  second  therein."  After  poison- 
ing, the  specimens  are  to  be  laid  between  driers,  and 
subjected  to  slight  pressure  for  twenty-four  hours, 
when  they  are  ready  to  be  fastened  to  the  paper. 
The  flowers  and  tender  parts  of  coarse,  tough  plants 
are  all  that  need  poisoning. 


272         THE  SECOND  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

The  specimens  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  paper 
with  hot  glue,  about  as  thick  as  cream,  laid  on  to  the 
plants  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil.  Strips  of  thin, 
gummed  paper  should  then  be  fastened  over  the 
thicker  parts,  to  prevent  their  coming  loose  in  han- 
dling. Prepare  your  glue  in  an  earthen  or  porcelain- 
lined  vessel,  as  corrosive  sublimate  acts  on  all  com- 
mon metals,  and  the  brush,  passing  from  plant  to 
glue  again  and  again,  will  be  likely  to  produce  stains 
if  there  is  a  trace  of  metal  in  the  solution. 


EXERCISE  LXXXI. 
Labelling  and  arranging  Plants. 

In  some  methods  of  studying  botany  the  scientific 
name  of  a  plant  is  the  first  thing  inquired  for.  But 
here  you  have  reached  the  last  exercise  of  the  book, 
and  have  prepared  a  collection  of  plants  for  receiving 
labels,  while  yet  ignorant  of  this  part  of  the  subject. 
It  was,  however,  not  the  design  of  the  present  work 
to  teach  you  to  label  plants,  with  their  scientific 
names,  for  these  are  arrived  at  only  by  the  study  of 
the  groups  known  as  genera  and  species,  and  they 
are  far  too  numerous,  and  are  based  upon  too  many 
combinations  of  detail  in  structure,  to  make  it  possi- 
ble to  deal  with  them  in  a  text-book  like  this.  Be- 
sides, in  the  true  order  of  study,  naming  follows,  and 
depends  upon  classification.  You  have  already  done 
something  in  this  direction.  You  know  the  charac- 
ters upon  which  classes  are  founded,  have  studied  a 


COLLECTING   AND   PEESEEVING   PLANTS.  273 

few  natural  orders,  and  have  begun  to  consider  the 
affinities  of  plants.  E"ow,  classification,  from  begin- 
ning to  end,  consists  in  associating  plants  by  these 
affinities,  and  can  be  rationally  performed  only  when 
they  are  perceived.  The  reason  for  a  plant's  scientific 
name  is  found  in  its  predominating  affinities.  Intel- 
ligently to  label  your  plant,  therefore,  you  should  be 
so  familiar  with  its  assemblage  of  characters  and  re- 
lations to  other  plants,  that  you  can  see  why  it  is 
placed  here,  and  not  there,  in  the  established  arrange- 
ment. 

The  work  you  have  begun  now  requires  a  regular 
botanical  manual  to  carry  it  out.  There  are  various 
books  that  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  Gray's 
"Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United 
States  "  may  be  commended  as  a  most  excellent  work 
for  the  purpose.  It  gives  a  full  statement  of  the 
characters  of  each  order,  followed  by  a  description 
of  the  genera  it  contains,  and  then  the  peculiarities 
of  the  species  of  each  genus  are  fully  given,  so  that 
a  plant  is  easily  identified.  The  genus  and  species 
determine  the  scientific  name.  "When  you  have  had 
some  experience  in  tracing  the  ordinal,  generic,  and 
specific  characters  of  plants,  you  will  read,  with 
profit  and  pleasure,  the  chapter  of  the  u  Manual " 
upon  classification,  and  be  prepared  fully  to  under- 
stand the  system  by  which  plants  are  named. 


AN  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  ABBREVIATIONS 
USED   IN  THE  BOTANICAL  CHARTS. 


Seven  principal  references  are  made  with  a  Capital  Letter,  to 
J)e  looked,  for  below  each  Illustration  ;  and  the  subordinate 
parts  are  then  noted  by  small  letters.  A  reference  within  a  O 
implies  not  magnified ;  C  on  the  left  indicates  a  Longitudi- 
nal Section,  and  <~^  above,  a  Transverse. 


L  Leaf. 

Fl. 

Flower 

—  p  petiole. 
—  1  limb. 
—  1.  1.  ..     leaflet. 
—  s  stipule. 

—  f.  r.  .  . 
-ph.... 
—  ph.  1.  . 
—  ca  

—  ca.  s.  . 

floral  receptacle, 
perianth, 
leaves  of. 
calyx, 
sepals. 

I.  fl.    Inflorescence  (in  flower). 
I.  fr.  Infructescence  (in  fruit). 
-  p.       peduncle. 
-  p.  p.  pedicel. 
-  b.       bract. 
-  b.  g.       (  glume. 
-  b.  p.       (  pale. 
-  g.  r.    general  receptacle, 

—  co.  .  .  . 
—  co.  p  . 
—  s  
—  s.f.  .. 

—  S:  C.  .  . 

—  s.  p.  .  . 
—  pi.  ... 
—  pi.  ca  . 
—  o  

corolla, 
petals, 
stamen, 
filament, 
anther, 
connective, 
pollen, 
pistil, 
carpel, 
ovary. 

^E  ^Estivation  (diagram), 
green.  .  .     sepals, 
red  .            petals 

—  o.  cl.  . 
—  o.  d.  . 
—  o.  pi.  . 

0     f 

cell  of. 
dissepiment, 
placenta. 

yellow  .  .     stamens, 
brown  .  .     carpels, 
blue.  .  .  .     ovules, 
shaded.  .     adhesion  of  whorls. 

—  sty.  .  . 
—  sti  
—  oo.  .  .  . 
—  oo.  rh. 

style. 
stigma, 
ovule, 
raphe. 

276 


EXPLANATION    OF    ABBREVIATIONS. 


Fl.  oo.  ch. 

—  00.  f.  . 

—  n. 

chalaze. 
foramen, 
nectary. 

S  
-in.... 

fq 

Seed, 
integument. 

(  fptstn 

tg.... 

]  tegmen. 

Fr.. 

Fruit. 

—  h  
—  -  m 

hile. 
mvcropvle 

—  pe.  . 

pericarp. 

—  rh. 

rap  he 

ep..  .  . 
me.  .  . 

en 

(  epicarp. 
•<  mesocarp. 
(  endocarp 

—  ch  .... 
—  ar.  .  .  . 
al  . 

chalaze. 
arillode. 
albumen 

—  ca.. 

carpel. 

—  pe  v 

valve. 

—  pe.  cl.  . 
—  pe.  d.  .  . 

—  P6    D. 

.  .     cell. 
.  .     dissepiment, 
placenta. 

E  
—  ca  

Emhryo. 
caulicle. 

—  pe.  f.  . 

funicular  cord. 

—  pe.  f.  a. 

.  .     arillus. 

-pi.  ... 

plumule. 

GLOSSAEY. 


AC'CESSOBY,  or  ANTHOCAB'POTJS  FEtrrre. 
Those  formed  by  the  union  of  many 
separate  flowers. 

ACCUM'BENT  COTYLE'DONS.  Having  the 
radicle  folded  against  their  edges. 

ACHE'NIUM.  A  small,  indehiscent  peri- 
carp. 

ACHLAMYD  'EDITS.  Having  no  protective 
organs. 

AO'BOGENS.    End-growers. 

ADHE'SION.  The  growing  together  of 
different  floral  whorls. 

AD 'NATE,  or  DOESTFIXED  (anther).  With 
the  filament  running  up  the  back  of  the 
anther. 

-<ESTIVA'TION,  or  PB^EFLOBA'TION.  The 
process  of  flowering. 

,  Val'vular.  When  the  edges 

of  the  sepals  and  petals  just  meet,  with- 
out overlapping. 

,  Indu' 'plicate.  Where  the 

edges  of  the  sepals  or  petals  are  turned 
slightly  inward,  or  touch  by  their  ex- 
ternal face. 

,  Redu' plicate.  When  '  the 

edges  are  turned  slightly  outward,  or 
touch  by  their  internal  face. 

,  Contorted.  When  each  leaf 

overlaps  its  neighbor,  and  the  parts 
seem  twisted  together. 

,  Convolute.  When  each  sepal 

or  petal  wholly  covers  those  within 

— — ,  Im'bricate.  When  the  petals 

or  sepals  overlap  one  another  like  shin- 
gles on  a  roof. 

,  Vex'ittary.  When  the  ex- 
ternal petal,  as  in  a  vexillum,  is  largest 
and  folds  over  the  other  petals. 


JSSTTVA'TION,  Or  PB^FLOBA'lTON,  CocJl'- 

lear.  When  one  of  the  petals  of  the 
corolla,  hollowed  like  a  spoon,  covers 
the  other  petals. 

,  Supervoliite.  When  the  pet- 
als are  all  folded  around  in  one  direc- 
tion inwrapping  one  another. 

ANAT'EOPOUS  (ovule).  Turned  over,  so 
as  to  bring  the  mycropyle  to  the  hilum. 

ANDB^E'CITJM.  All  the  stamens  of  a  flower 
taken  together. 

AN'GIOSPEBM.  A  plant  having  its  seeds 
enclosed  in  a  pericarp. 

AN'NTTAL.    Living  one  year. 

AN'NULAB.    In  rings. 

AN'NTTLTTS.    A  ring. 

AFFCN'ITY.  The  resemblance  of  charac- 
ter among  plants. 

AG'GBEGATE  (flower).  Composed  of  flo- 
rets united  within  a  common  receptacle. 

ALBU'MEN  (of  seeds).  The  tissue  in  which 

the  embryo  is  embedded,  and  by  which 

it  is  nourished. 
AL'GA  (pi.,  Algce).    Sea-weeds  and  other 

cryptogamous  water-plants. 
AN'OPHYTES.    Cryptogamous  plants. 
ANTHEB.    The  thickened,  oblong  head  of 

a  filament. 
ANTHEEID'IA,  or  AN'THEBIDS.    Organs  in 

cryptogamous  plants,  answering  to  the 

anthers  of  flowering  plants. 

APOCAB'POUS.  Having  the  carpels  sepa- 
rate. 

APPENDIC'ULAB  (connective).  Extending 
above  or  below  the  anther,  and  taking 
the  form  of  a  feather,  a  fleshy  mass, 
etc. 

ABAOH'NOID.    Resembling  a  cobweb. 


278 


GLOSSARY. 


ABCHEGO'NIUM,  or  ABCH'EGONE.  The 
same  as  pistillidia. 

ASCENDING  OVULES.  Kising  upward  ob- 
liquely. 

AWN.    The  beard  of  oats,  barley,  etc. 

AXIAL  EM'BEYO.  Situated  in  the  centre 
of  the  albumen. 

AXILE.    Belonging  to  the  centre,  or  axis. 

AX'ILLABT.  Starting  from  the  axil  of  a 
leaf. 


BA'SAL.  Situated  at  the  base. 
BA'SIFIXED.  Same  as  innate. 
BEERY.  A  thin-skinned,  indehiscent, 

juicy  fruit,  having  the  seeds  embedded 

in  a  pulpy  mass. 

BIDEN'TATE,     or      BICUS'PID.       Two- 
toothed. 

BIEN'NIAL.    Living  two  years. 
BI'NAEY.    Arranged  in  twos. 
BLADE.    The  flattened  green  part  of  a 

leaf. 
BOEAGINA'CE^!.     Plants  of  the  Borage 

family. 
BBACT.    A  small  leaf  or  scale,  from  the 

axil  of  which  a  flower,  or  its  pedicel, 

proceeds. 


CADU'COUS  (floral  whorls)     Falling  when 

the  flower  opens. 
CALYP'TEA.    The  cap  or  hood  of  a  spo- 

range. 

CALYX.    The  outer  covering'of  a  flower. 
CAM'BIUM.     A  glutinous  sap  occurring 

between  the  newest  layers  of  wood  and 

bark. 
CAMPYLOT'BOPOUS  (ovule).    Having  the 

apex  bent  over  close  to  the  base. 
CAP 'ILL  ART.    Pertaining  to  capillary  or 

very  minute  tubes. 

CAP'SULE.    The  pod  of  a  compound  pis- 
til ;  the  dry,  dehiscent  fruit  of  syncar- 

pous  pistils. 
CAE'PEL.    A  simple  pistil,  or  one  of  the 

parts  of  a  compound  pistiL 
CARYOP'SIS.     A  one-celled,   one-seeded 

fruit  with  pericarp,  membranous,  and 

united  to  the  seed. 
CELL.    A  small  chamber:  the  ultimate 

form  in  plant  physiology. 
CELLULAB   TISSTTE.    The  mass  of  sub- 
stances formed  by  the  union  of  cells. 

,  Regular.  Having  cubical  cells. 

,  Prismatic.    Having  elongated 

cells. 
,  Tabular.    Having  flattened 

cells. 


CELLULAB  TISSUE,  Muriform.  Having 
the  cells  arranged  like  courses  of  brick 
in  a  wall. 

CHALA'ZA.  The  place  where  the  nucleus 
and  the  coats  of  an  ovule  grow  together. 

CHABACTEBS  OF  PLANTS.  The  perma- 
nent features  of  species. 

CHLO'BOPHYLL.  The  green  coloring-mat- 
ter of  plants. 

CIL'ITJM  (pi.,  CILIA).  A  vibrating  hair  or 
lash. 

COCH'LEAE  ^ESTIVATION,  (See  ^ESTIVA- 
TION.) 

COHE'BENT.  Growing  together.  Said  of 
identical  parts.  Thus  petals  with  pet- 
als, sepals  with  sepals,  etc. 

COHE'SION.  Growing  together  of  parts 
of  the  same  sort. 

COLTJM'NAE.    Shaped  like  a  column. 

COM'MIBSUBE.  The  face  by  which  two 
carpels  cohere,  as  in  Umbelliferae. 

COMPLETE  (flower).  One  having  all  the 
organs. 

COMPOS 'IT^!  Plants  whose  flowers  are 
made  up  of  several  florets  with  syn- 
geneseous  stamens. 

COMPOUND  (pistil).  Consisting  of  several 
united  carpels. 

CON'ICAL.  Bound,  and  decreasing  to  a 
point. 

CONNEO  'TTVE.  A  continuation  of  the  fila- 
ment which  unites  the  two  lobes  of  the 
anther. 

CONNI'VANT.    Converging. 

CONTORTED  ^ESTIVATION.  (See  JESTIVA- 
TION.) 

COBOL'LA.  The  inner  covering  of  a  flow- 
er. 

COB'TICAL  LAYEB.    A  layer  of  bark. 

COBYMB'.  A  species  of  inflorescence  in 
which  the  lesser  flower-stalks  are  pro- 
duced along  both  sides  of  the  common 
stalk,  rising,  however,  to  the  same 
height  as  the  latter.  Ex.,  scurvy -grass. 

CREM'OCABP.  The  fruit  of  Umbelliferse, 
consisting  of  two  indehiscent  carpels. 

CRUCIF'ER^E.  Plants  having  a  cruciform 
corolla;  stamens  four— two  !ong,  and 
two  short;  inflorescence  racemose, 
without  bracts. 

CRYPTOO'AMOITS.    Flowerless. 

CULM.    The  stem  of  grasses  and  sedges. 

Ctr'pTTLE.  A  little  cup ;  the  involucre  of 
a  nut. 

CYME.  A  loose,  irregular,  definite  inflo- 
rescence. 

CYMO'SE,  or  DEFINITE  INFLOEES'CENCE. 

CYP'SELA.  An  achenium  with  an  adhe- 
rent calyx-tube.  Ex.,  the  Composite. 


GLOSSARY. 


279 


DECAN'DROUS.    Having  ten  stamens. 
DECID'UOUS.    Subject  to  fall  off. 

DSCID'UOUS  (floral  whorls).  Falling  be- 
fore the  fruit  is  formed. 

DECUS 'SATED.  Crossed.  In  the  shape 
of  an  X. 

DEFINITE.   Not  exceeding  the  number  12. 

DEHIS'CENCE.  A  bursting  open,  as  of  a 
pod  or  of  an  anther. 

DEHIS'CENT.    Bursting  open. 

DIADEL'PHOUS.  Having  the  filaments 
grown  together  in  two  bundles. 

DIAN'DROUS.    Having  two  stamens. 

DICHLAMYD'EOUS.  Having  two  protect- 
ing organs,  viz.,  calyx  and  corolla. 

DICHOT'OMOUS.  Kegularly  dividing  by 
pairs. 

DIC'LINOUS.  Having  the  stamens  and 
pistils  in  separate  flowers. 

DIDYN  '  AMOUS.  Having  two  long  and  two 
short  stamens. 

DILATED.    Spread ;  flattened  out. 

DIM'EROUS.    Arranged  in  twos. 

DIMID'IATED  (anther).  Having  one  lobe 
abortive  or  suppressed 

DKE'CIOUS.  Having  male  flowers  on  one 
plant  and  female  on  another. 

DIS'COID  FLOWER-HEADS.  Those  desti- 
tute of  ray-florets. 

DISK  FLORETS.  The  inner  florets  of  a 
flower-head. 

DISSEP'IMENTS.  Partitions  in  an  ovary 
or  fruit. 

DIST'ICHOUS.    Having  two  rows. 

DISTINCT.    Not  held  by  cohesion. 

DODECAN'DROUS.  Having  twelve  sta- 
mens. 

DORSAL.    Belonging  to  the  back. 

DRUPE.  A  pulpy,  indehiscent,  one-celled, 
one-  or  two-seeded  fruit,  with  succulent 
or  fibrous  epicarp,  and  hard,  stony,  dis- 
tinct endocarp  (#».,  peach). 

DUCTS.  Tubes  lying  among  the  cells  of 
plants ;  called  also  vessels. 

DURA'MEN.    Heart-wood. 


EMAR'GINATE  (anther).  Having  the  sum- 
mit or  base  of  its  cell  extending  upward 
or  downward,  a  little  beyond  the  con- 
nective. 

ENDEC  AN  'DROTTS. 
mens. 

EN'DOCARP.    The  inner  coat  of  a  fruit. 

EN'DOGENS.    Inside-growing  plants. 

ENNEAN'DROUS.    Having  nine  stamens. 

EP'ICARP.    The  outer  covering  of  a  fruit. 

EPIDER'MIS.  The  cellular  layer  covering 
the  external  surface  of  plants. 


Having   eleven    sta- 


EPIG'YNOUS.  Having  the  stamens  in- 
serted upon  the  ovary. 

EPIPET'ALOUS.  Having  the  stamens  in- 
serted upon  the  corolla. 

ERECT  OVULES.  Rising  upright  from  the 
base  of  the  cell. 

ESSENTIAL  ORGANS  (of  flowers).  Those 
requisite  for  the  production  of  the 
seeds,  that  is,  the  stamens  and  pistil. 

ET^E'RIO.    Same  as  aggregate  fruits. 

EXALBU'MINOUS  (seeds).  Those  without 
albumen. 

EXCEN'TRIO  EMBRYO.  Situated  away 
from  the  centre  of  the  albumen. 

EX'OGENS.    Outside-growers. 

EXSERT'ED  (stamens).  Extending  be- 
yond the  corolla. 

EX'TINE.  The  outer  coat  of  a  pollen- 
grain. 

EXTRO'RSE.    Facing  outward. 


FAS'CICLE.    A  cymose  cluster  of  nearly 


FENES'TRATED.    Having  chinks  or  slits. 

FERTILE.    Bearing  seed. 

FI'BRO-VAS'CULAR.  Pertaining  to  fibre, 
with  vessels  or  ducts. 

FIL'AMENT.  The  stem-like  part  of  a  sta- 
men. 

FIL'IFORM.    Thread-like. 

FLORETS.    The  flowers  of  a  flower-head. 

FREE.    Not  held  by  adhesion. 

FREE-CENTRAL  PLACENTATTON.  Having 
the  ovules  in  the  centre  of  the  pistil, 
without  dissepiments. 

FROND.    The  leaf  of  a  fern. 

FUN'GUS  (pi.,  FUNGI).  A  plant  of  the 
mushroom  kind. 


GAMOPET'ALOUS.  Having  the  petals 
grown  together. 

GAMOSEP'ALOUS.  With  sepals  grown  to- 
gether. 

GLOBO'SE.    Eound,  like  a  globe. 

GLOM'ERULE.  A  cymose  cluster  of  ses- 
sile flowers  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf. 

GLUMA'CE^E.    The  grasses  and  sedges. 

GLUME.  The  floral  covering  of  grasses 
and  sedges. 

GO'NOPHORE.  Supporting  stamens  and 
pistil. 

GRAMIN'E^E.    The  grasses. 

GYM'NOSPERM.  A  plant  bearing  naked 
seeds.  Ex.,  pine,  hemlock. 

GYNAN'DROUS.  Having  the  stamens  con- 
solidated with  the  pistil. 

GYN'OBASE.  A  dilated  base,  or  receptacle, 
supporting  a  multilocular  ovary. 


280 


GLOSSARY. 


GYN'OPHOBE.    The  pedicel   raising  the 
pistil  or  ovary  above  the  stamens. 


HEPTAN'DBOUS.    Having  seven  stamens. 

HEKMAPH'EODITE.  Containing  both  sta- 
mens and  pistils. 

HESPERID'IUM.  A  fruit  of  the  orange  kind. 

HETEBOG'AMOUS.  Bearing  flowers  of 
different  kinds,  as  regards  the  pistils 
and  stamens. 

HEXAN'DBOUS.    Having  six  stamens. 

HI'LTTM.  The  scar  left  on  a  seed  after 
separation  from  the  placenta. 

HOMOG'AMOUS.  Bearing  flowers  all  of 
one  kind  as  to  the  pistils  and  stamens. 

HOBIZON'TAL  OVULES.  Lying  level  with 
the  horizon. 

HYPOG'YNOUS.  Having  the  stamens  in- 
serted under  the  ovary. 


IM'BBICATE  ^ESTIVATION.  (See  ESTIVA- 
TION.) 

INCLUDED  (stamens).  Having  their  en- 
tire length  within  the  corolla. 

INCUM'BENT  COTYLE'DONS  Having  the 
radicle  folded  back  on  one  of  them. 

INDEFINITE.    Exceeding  the  number  12. 

INDEHIS'CENT.    Not  bursting  the  pod. 

INDUPLICATE  (valvate  aestivation).  See 
ESTIVATION. 

INDU'SIUM.  The  scale  or  covering  of  a 
fruit-dot  on  the  fern-leaf. 

INFEBIOB.    Below. 

INFLOBES'CENCE.  The  arrangement  of 
flowers  on  the  stem. 

IN'NATE,  or  BASIFIXED  (anther).  With 
the  filament  running  straight  into  the 
base  of  the  connective. 

INSEBTION.  The  attachment  of  an  organ 
to  its  support. 

IN'TEBNODE.  The  space  between  two 
nodes. 

IN'TINE.  The  inner  coat  of  a  pollen- 
grain. 

INTBO'BSE.    Facing  inward. 

INVOLU'CRE.  The  outer  green  circle  of  a 
flower-head. 

IBREGULAB  DEHIS'CENCE.  When  the 
seeds  are  discharged  from  the  ovary 
through  chinks  or  pores,  or  other  irreg- 
ular opening. 

LACU'NE.  A  hole  or  gap  in  cellular  tis- 
sue, produced  by  the  destruction  of 
cells. 

LATERAL.    Pertaining  to  the  side. 

LA'TEX.  The  milky  sap  contained  in  the 
stalks  and  leaves  of  certain  plants. 


LATICIF'EROUS  VESSELS.  Those  contain- 
ing the  latex. 

LEGIT 'ME.  A  pod  dehiscent  into  two 
valves,  leaving  the  seed  attached  at 
one  suture. 

LI'BEB.    The  inner  bark  next  the  wood. 

LICH'EN.  The  plant  commonly  called 
rock-moss,  tree-moss. 

LIMB.    Border  of  a  leaf,  etc. 

LIG'ULATE.    Tongue-shaped. 

LOBE.    A  krge  division  of  an  organ  . 

LOCULICI'DAL  DEHIS'CENCE.  When  the 
splitting  of  the  ovary  opens  into  the 
cells  by  the  dorsal  suture. 

LO'MENT.  An  elongated  pod  with  two 
valves  which  are  divided  transversely. 


MALE  (flowers).    Having  stamens,  but  no 

pistils. 
MABCES'CENT  (floral  whorls).    Persisting 

in  a  dry  and  withered  state. 

MEDUL'LABY   KAYS,      Kays    extending 

from  pith  to  bark  in  exogens. 
MEDUL'LABY  SHEATH.    A  thin  layer  of 

vascular  tissue  surrounding  the  pith. 
MEB'ICARP.    One  half  of  the  fruit  of  an 

umbellifer. 

MES'OCABP.    The  middle  layer  of  a  peri- 
carp. 
Mi'c  BOPYLE.    The  opening  into  the  coats 

of  an  ovule. 

MIDBIB.    The  main  rib  of  a  leaf. 
MONADEL'PUOUS.    Having  the  filaments 

grown  together  in  one  bundle. 
MONAN'DBOUS.    Having  one  stamen. 
MONOCHLAMYD'EOUS.     Having  only  one 

protecting  organ,  the  calyx. 
MONOECIOUS.    Having  male  and  female 

flowers  on  the  same  plant. 
MULTIPLE  (pistil).    Consisting  of  several 

distinct  carpels. 
MYCE'LIUM.    The  filamentous  parts  of  a 

fungus,  answering  to  root,  stem,  and 

leaves  of  higher  plants. 


!  NEC'TARY.    A  little  gland  on  the  claw  of 

i      a  petal,  which  secretes  a  sugary  liquid. 

NEUTBAL.    Having  neither  stamens  nor 

pistils. 
j  NU'CLEUS.    The  centre  of  an  ovule,  where 

the  embryo  is  formed. 
NUT.     A  hard,  one-seeded,  indehiscent 
fruit. 


OBLONG.     Having  greater  length  than 

width. 
OBSOLETE.    Not  distinct;  rudimental. 


GLOSSARY. 


281 


OCTAN'DBOTTS.    Having  eight  stamens. 

OPEB'CULUM.    The  lid  of  a  sporange. 

OBGANOG'BAPHY.  A  description  of  the 
organs  of  plants. 

OETIIOT'EOPOUS  (ovule).  Having  its  base 
in  one  position  with  that  of  the  nucleus, 
while  the  mycropyle  is  at  the  apex. 

OS'MOSE.  The  tendency  of  fluids  to  in- 
termix. 

O'VARY.  Lowest  part  of  the  pistil,  con- 
taining the  seeds. 

O'VOID.    Kesembling  an  egg. 

O'VTJLE.    A  rudimentary  seed. 


PA'LE^E.  Chaff;  the  bract-like  bodies 
growing  among  the  florets  of  a  flower- 
head. 

PAN'ICLE.    An  open  cluster. 

PAP 'PUS.  The  down,  beard,  bristles,  etc., 
representing  the  calyx  in  Compositae. 

PABEN'CHYMA.  Cellular  tissue  having  a 
spheroidal,  not  tubular  form. 

,  Complete,.  When  the  cells  lie  close 

together,  without  intervals. 

,  Incomplete.  "When  there  are  un- 
occupied spaces  between  the  cells. 

PAEAPDY'SES.  Stalks  or  filaments  ac- 
companying the  antheridia  of  mosses. 

PAEI'ETAL  PLACENTA'TION.  Having  the 
placenta  attached  to  the  walls  of  the 
ovary. 

PEWN'CLE.  The  stem  supporting  the 
flower  and  fruit  of  a  plant. 

PENTAM'EBOTJS.    Arranged  in  fives. 

PENTAN'DBOUS.    Having  five  stamens. 

PENTAS'TICHOTTS.    In  five  rows. 

PE'PO.  An  indehiscent,  fleshy  fruit,  with 
seeds  borne  on  a  parietal  placenta,  and 
with  the  epicarp  more  or  less  thick  and 
hard.  Ex.,  squash. 

PEEEN'NIAL.    Living  many  years. 

PERFECT  (flowers).  Having  stamens  and 
pistils. 

PER'IANTH.  The  calyx  of  a  single  flower ; 
the  leaves  of  a  flower  when  calyx  and 
corolla  are  not  readily  distinguishable. 

PER'IGONE.    Same  as  perianth. 

PEEIG'YNOTTS.  Having  the  stamens  in- 
serted upon  the  ovary. 

PEE'ISTOME.  A  fringe  of  teeth  around 
the  mouth  of  a  sporange. 

PEESISTENT.  Kemaining  beyond  the  usual 
period. 

PEESISTENT  (floral  whorls).  Eemaining 
till  the  fruit  is  mature. 

PET'AL.    A  lobe  of  the  corolla, 

PET'ALOID.    Like  a  petal. 

PET'IOLE.    A  leaf-stalk. 

PHYLLOTAX'IS.    Leaf  arrangement. 


PIL'EXTS.    A  cap ;  the  head  of  a  fungus. 

PIN'NA  (pi.,  PINN.E).  One  leaflet  of  a  pin- 
nate leaf,  or  branch  of  a  compound  pin- 
nate leaf. 

PIN'NULE.     A  subdivision  of  a  pinna. 

PIS'TILLATE.  Having  a  pistil,  but  no 
stamens. 

PISTILLID'IA,  or  PIS'TILLIDS.  Organs  in 
cryptogamous  plants,  answering  to  the 
pistils  of  flowering  plants. 

PLACEN'TA  (pi.,  PLACENTAE).  That  part 
of  the  ovary  which  bears  the  ovules. 

PLTT'MULE.  The  first  bud  of  a  young 
plant. 

POT/LEN.  The  powder  contained  in  the 
anther. 

POLLIN'IA.      Pollen-grains    cohering   in 


POLYADEL'PHOUS.  Having  the  filaments 
grown  together  in  three  or  more  bun- 
dles. 

POLYAN'DROTTS.  Having  more  than  12 
stamens. 

POLYCOTYLED'ONOTTB.  Having  seed  with 
two  or  more  lobes. 

POLYG'AMOTTS.  Having  male,  female,  and 
hermaphrodite  flowers  on  the  same 
plant. 

POLYHED'BIC.    Many-sided. 

POLYPET'ALOTIS.  Having  the  petals  dis- 
tinct. 

POLYSEP'ALOTTS.  Having  the  sepals  dis- 
tinct. 

POME.  A  fleshy,  indehiscent,  many- 
celled  fruit,  with  tough  endocarp,  and 
enclosed  by  the  calyx- tube.  Ex.,  ap- 
ple. 

PO'EOTJS.    Having  pores  or  holes. 

PE^FLORATION.    (See  ESTIVATION.) 

PRI'MINE.    The  outer  sac  of  an  ovule. 

PROSEN'CHYMA.     Fibrous  tissue  having 

cells  with  tapering  extremities. 
PROTECTING  OBGANS  (of  flowers).   Those 

which  cover  and  nourish  the  stamens 

and  pistil. 
PROTHAI/UTJM,   or   PBOTHALLTTS.     The 

leaf-like  body  into  which  the  spore  of 

a  fern  expands. 
PRO'TOPLASM.  A  mucilaginous  substance 

spread  on  the  inside  of  cell-walls. 
PXTBES'CENT.     Having  fine,  short  hairs 

or  down. 
PYX'IS.    A  pod  which  dehisces  by  the 

falling  off  of  a  sort  of  lid. 


QTJI'NARY.    Arranged  in  fives. 
QFINCUN'OIAL    PR.EFLORATION.       (See 
PK^FLOBATION.) 


282 


GLOSSARY. 


RACE'ME.    An  elongated  flower-cluster. 

RA'CEMOSE.     Growing  in  racemes. 

RACH'IS.  The  axis  of  several  kinds  of 
inflorescence. 

RANUNCULA'CE^E.  Belonging  to  the  Ra- 
nunculus order. 

RANUN'CULUS.    Buttercup. 

RAY  FLORETS.  The  outer  petal-like  flo- 
rets of  a  flower-head. 

RECEP'TACLE.    The  support  of  a  flower. 

REDUPLICATE  ESTIVATION.  (See  ESTI- 
VATION.) 

REN'IFORM.    Kidney-shaped. 

REPRODUCTION,  ORGANS  OF.  Those  con- 
cerned in  the  production  of  the  seed. 

RETIC'ULATED.    Resembling  net-work. 

RHA'PHE.  The  connection  between  the 
base  of  the  nucleus  and  the  base  of  the 
ovule. 

RHAPH'IDES.  Minute  transparent  crys- 
tals found  in  the  tissues  of  plants. 


SAMA'RA.  A  dry,  indehiscent  fruft,  sin- 
gle or  in  pairs,  with  winged  apex  or 
margin. 

SAP.    The  juice  of  plants. 

SCOR'PIOID.  Curved  like  the  scorpion's 
tail. 

SECUN'DINE.    The  inner  sac  of  an  ovule. 

SEP'AL.    A  leaf,  or  part  of  the  calyx. 

SEPTICI'DAL  DEHIS'CENCE.  When  the 
ovary  splits  through  the  partitions  of 
the  dissepiments. 

SEPTIF'RAGAL  DEHISCENCE.  When  the 
valves  of  the  ovary  fall  away,  leaving 
the  dissepiments  behind. 

SES'SILE.  Directly  issuing  from  stem  or 
stalk. 

SE'TA.    The  stalk  of  a  sporange. 

SIS'MOID.  Curved  in  two  directions,  like 
the  letter  8. 

SI'LBX.    Flint. 

SIL'ICLE.    A  short,  broad  silique. 

SII/IQUE.  An  oblong  pod  with  two  su- 
tures, and  dissepiment  between,  having 
seeds  on  either  side  of  the  dissepiment. 

SIMPLE  (pistil).  Consisting  of  only  one 
carpel. 

SOLITARY.    Standing  alone. 

SORO'SIS.  A  kind  of  multiple  fruit.  Ex., 
pineapple. 

SO'RTTB  (pi.,  SO'RI).  A  cluster  of  fruit- 
dots  on  the  fronds  of  ferns. 

SPIKE.  An  elongated  flower-cluster  with 
sessile  flowers. 

SPIKELET.  A  small  spike;  the  inflores- 
cence of  grasses. 

SPINOUS.    Thorny. 


SPI'RAL.  Winding  like  the  thread  of  a 
screw. 

SPON'GIOLES.  The  termination  of  a  rad- 
icle. 

SPORANGE.    Same  as  spore-case. 

SPORE.  A  grain  in  cryptogamous  plants 
which  performs  the  functions  of  a  seed. 

SPORE-CASE,  or  SPORA'NGE.  Cells  con- 
taining the  spores  of  ferns. 

SQU A'MUL^,  or  LODICULE.  Minute  scales 
at  the  base  of  the  ovary  of  grasses. 

STAM'INATE.  Having  stamens,  but  no 
pistils. 

STERILE.    Not  producing  seed. 

STEPS.    A  stalk. 

STIP'ITATE.    Having  a  stipe. 

STIP'ULE.  An  appendage,  like  a  leaf,  sit- 
uated at  the  base  of  a  leaf  or  petiole. 

STO'MA  (pi.,  STOMA'TA).  Breathing-pores 
of  leaves  and  other  organs. 

STRI'ATED.    Grooved  or  channelled. 

STRo'BrLUS.  A  kind  of  multiple  fruit. 
Ex.,  pine-cones. 

STYLE.  The  stem  of  the  pistil  next 
above  the  ovary. 

SUB'ULATE.    Tapering  like  an  awl. 

SUPER VOLU'TE  ESTIVATION.  (See  ESTI- 
VATION.) 

SUSPENDED  OVULES.  Hanging  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  summit  of  the  cell. 

SU'TURE.  The  seam  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  margins  in  any  part  of  a  plant. 

SYCO'NUS.  A  kind  of  multiple  fruit.  Ex., 
fig. 

SYMMETRICAL.  Having  the  number  of 
its  parts  of  each  sort  equal,  as  five 
sepals,  five  petals,  and  five  stamens. 

SYNCAR'POUS.  Having  the  carpels  con- 
nected. 

SYNGENE'SIOUS.  Having  the  anthers 
united. 


TERMINAL.    Belonging  to  the  extremity. 

TER'NARY.    Arranged  in  threes. 

TETAN'DRotrs.    Having  four  stamens. 

TETRAD YN'AMOUS.  Having  four  stamens, 
two  long  and  two  short. 

THA'LAMUS.  The  receptacle  of  the  flow- 
er, or  the  part  of  the  peduncle  into 
which  the  floral  organs  are  inserted. 

THECA.    A  case. 

TO'RUB.    Same  as  Thalamus. 

TRANSVERSE.    Crosswise. 

TRIAN'DROUS.    Having  three  stamens. 

TRI'MEROUS.    Arranged  in  threes. 

TRIS'TICHOUS.    In  three  ranks. 

TUBE'RCULATED.    Pimpled. 


GLOSSARY. 


283 


UM'BEL.  A  flower-cluster  having  the 
flower-stalks  spread  moderately  from  a 
common  point,  forming  a  plane  or  con- 
vex surface  above. 


UMBELLIF'EK^;. 
umbels. 


Plants  blossoming   in 


A  kind  of  achenium  with 
thin,  membranous  pericarp,  which  is 
sometimes  dehiscent. 


VAG'INTJLE.  The  collar  or  sheath  at  the 
base  of  a  sporange-stalk. 

VALVE.  One  of  the  parts  into  which  a 
pericarp  or  an  anther  splits. 

YAL'VULAR.     After  the    manner   of  a 

valve. 

VAL'VTJLAR  (or  EEGULAR)  DEHIB'CENCE. 
When  the  ovary  splits  into  regular 
pieces  called  valves. 

VENA'TION.  The  manner  in  which  the 
veins  are  arranged  in  a  leaf. 


VEN'TRAL.  Belonging  to  the  anterior 
part. 

VERBENA'CE^E.  Plants  of  the  Verbena 
family. 

VE'RSATILE.    Freely  movable. 

VER'TICAL.  From  top  to  bottom  ;  length- 
wise. 

VEX'ILLART   ^ESTIVATION.     (See  JEs-n- 

VATION.) 

VIL'LOTJS  (surface).     Having  very  long, 

soft,  erect,  straight  hairs. , 
VIT'T,E.    The  oil-sacs  in  the  fruit  of  the 

Umbelliferae. 
VOL'VA.     The  outer   wrappage   of  the 

young  mushroom. 


WHORL.    A  ring  of  leaves,  flowers,  or 
other  organs  around  a  stem. 


ZO'OSPORE.  A  spore  of  certain  water- 
plants  which  moves  by  means  of  vibra- 
tile  cilia. 


APPENDIX. 


ON  THE  EDUCATIONAL  CLAIMS  OF  BOTANY. 

THE  present  method  of  dealing  with  the  subject  of  botany 
is  the  outgrowth  of  a  desire  to  gain  certain  advantages  in 
general  mental  culture,  which  can  be  only  obtained  by  making 
Nature  a  more  direct  and  prominent  object  of  study  in  primary 
education  than  is  now  done.  I  have  thought  it  desirable  to 
present  the  reasons  which  have  led  to  its  preparation  more 
fully  than  would  be  suitable  in  an  introduction,  and  therefore 
place  them  at  the  close  of  the  work. 

The  subject  of  mind  has  various  aspects;  that  in  which 
the  teacher  is  chiefly  concerned  is  its  aspect  of  growth.  I 
propose  to  consider  the  subject  from  this  point  of  view ;  to 
state,  first,  some  of  the  essential  conditions  of  mental  unfold- 
ing ;  then  to  show  in  what  respects  the  prevailing  school  cul- 
ture fails  to  conform  to  them ;  and,  lastly,  to  point  out  how 
the  subject  of  Botany,  when  properly  pursued,  is  eminently 
suited  to  develop  those  forms  of  mental  activity,  the  neglect  of 
which  is  now  the  fundamental  deficiency  of  popular  education. 

Mind  is  a  manifestation  of  life ;  and  mental  growth  is  de- 
pendent upon  bodily  growth.  In  fact,  these  operations  not 
only  proceed  together,  but  are  governed  by  the  same  laws. 
As  body,  however,  is  something  more  tangible  and  definite 
than  mind,  and  as  material  changes  are  more  easily  appre- 
hended than  mental  changes,  it  will  be  desirable  to  glance  first 
at  what  takes  place  in  the  growth  of  the  body. 

I. — HOW   THE   BODY   GROWS. 

All  living  beings  commence  as  germs.  The  germ  is  a  little 
portion  of  matter  that  is  uniform  throughout,  and  is  hence  said 
to  be  homogeneous.* 

*  In  the  following  statement  two  or  three  words  will  occur  with  whicl 


286  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

The  beginning  of  growth  is  a  change  in  tne  germ,  by 
which  it  is  separated  into  unlike  parts.  One  portion  becomes 
different  from  the  rest,  or  is  differentiated  from  it  ;  and  then  it 
is  itself  still  further  changed  or  differentiated  into  more  unlike 
parts.  In  this  way,  from  the  diffused  uniform  mass,  various 
tissues,  structures,  and  organs  gradually  arise,  which,  in  the 
course  of  growth,  constantly  become  more  diverse,  complex, 
and  heterogeneous.  But,  accompanying  these  changes,  there  is 
also  a  tendency  to  unity.  It  is  by  the  assimilation  of  like 
with  like  that  differences  arise.  Nourishment  is  drawn  in 
from  without,  and  then  each  part  attracts  to  itself  the  particles 
that  are  like  itself.  Bone  material  is  incorporated  with  bone, 
and  nerve  material  with  nerve;  so  that  each  different  part 
arises  from  the  grouping  together  of  similar  constituents.  This 
tendency  to  unity,  by  which  each  part  is  produced,  and  by 
which  all  the  parts  are  wrought  together  into  a  mutually  de- 
pendent whole,  is  termed  integration;  and  the  combined  ope- 
rations by  which  development  is  carried  on  constitute  what  is 
now  known  as  Evolution. 

At  birth,  bodily  development  has  been  carried  so  far  that 
the  infant  is  capable  of  leading  an  independent  life.  Mental 
growth  commences  when  the  little  creature  begins  to  be  acted 
upon  by  external  agencies.  An  already-growing  mechanism 
takes  on  a  new  kind  of  action  in  new  circumstances,  and  body 
and  mind  now  grow  together.  The  development  of  mind  de- 
pends upon  certain  properties  of  nervous  matter  by  which  it 
is  capable  of  receiving,  retaining,  and  combining  impressions. 
An  organism  has  been  thus  prepared,  upon  which  the  sur- 
rounding universe  takes  effect,  and  the  growth  of  mind  con- 
sists in  the  development  of  an  internal  consciousness  in 
correspondence  to  the  external  order  of  the  world. 

II.  —  HOW  THE  MIND   GKOWS. 

At  birth  we  say  the  infant  knows  nothing  ;  that  is,  it  recog- 
nizes no  thing.  Though  the  senses  produce  perfect  irnpres- 


some  readers  may  be  unfamiliar.  But  more  precise  thoughts  require  more 
precise  terms  to  mark  them  ;  and,  as  these  terms  are  now  established,  their 
use  here  is  admissible  as  well  as  advantageous. 


HOW   THE   MIND   GEOWS.  287 

sions  from  the  first,  yet  these  impressions  are  not  distinguished 
from  each  other.  This  vague,  indefinite,  homogeneous  sensi- 
bility or  feeling  may  be  called  the  germ-state  of  mind.  As 
bodily  growth  begins  in  a  change  of  the  material  germ,  so 
mental  growth  begins  in  a  change  of  feeling.  This  change  of 
feeling  is  due  to  a  change  of  external  impressions  upon  the 
infant  organism.  "Were  there  no  changes  of  impression  upon 
us,  there  could  never  be  changes  of  feeling  within  us,  and 
knowing  would  be  impossible.  If,  for  example,  there  were 
never  an  alteration  of  temperature,  and  a  resulting  change  of 
impressions  upon  the  nerves,  we  should  be  forever  prevented 
from  knowing  any  thing  of  Tieat.  The  first  dawn  of  intelli- 
gence consists  in  changes  of  feeling  by  which  differences  begin 
to  be  recognized.  Mind  commences  in  this  perception  of  dif- 
ferences ;  it  cannot  be  said  that  we  know  any  thing  of  itself, 
but  only  the  differences  between  it  and  other  things.  And,  as 
in  bodily  growth,  so  in  mental  growth,  there  is  an  assimilation 
of  like  with  like,  or  a  process  of  integration.  From  the  very 
first,  along  with  the  perception  of  difference,  there  has  been 
also  a  perception  of  likeness.  The  clock-stroke,  when  first 
heard,  is  felt  simply  as  an  impression  differing  from  others  that 
precede  and  succeed  it  in  the  consciousness ;  but,  when  heard 
again,  not  only  is  there  this  recognition  of  difference,  but  it  is 
perceived  as  like  the  clock-stroke  which  preceded  it.  This 
second  impression  is  assimilated  to  the  first,  and,  when  a  third 
arises,  it  also  coalesces  with  the  former  like  impressions.  And 
so  of  all  other  sights,  sounds,  and  touches.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  constant  changes  of  impression,  and  a  constant  assimi- 
lation of  like  with  like,  there  arise,  at  first  vague,  and  then  dis- 
tinct unlikenesses  among  the  feelings ;  that  is,  sights  begin  to 
be  distinguished  from  sounds,  and  sounds  from  touches,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  differences  begin  to  be  perceived  among  the 
impressions  of  each  sense.  In  this  way,  the  consciousness,  at 
first  homogeneous,  grows  into  diversity,  or  becomes  more  hetero- 
geneous^ while  its  separated  or  differentiated  parts  are  termed 
ideas. 

Let  us  look  into  this  a  little  more  closely.    When  an  infant 
opens  its  eyes  for  the  first  time  upon  the  flame  of  a  candle,  foi 
13 


288  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF  BOTANY. 

example,  an  image  is  formed,  an  impression  produced,  and 
there  is  a  change  of  feeling.  But  the  flame  is  not  known,  be- 
cause there  is  as  yet  no  idea.  The  trace  left  by  the  first  im- 
pression is  so  faint  that,  when  the  light  is  removed,  it  is  not 
remembered ;  that  is,  it  has  not  yet  become  a  mental  posses- 
sion. As  the  light,  however,  flashes  into  its  eyes  a  great  many 
times  in  a  few  weeks,  each  new  impression  is  added  to  the 
trace  of  former  impressions  left  in  the  nervous  matter,  and 
thus  the  impression  deepens,  until  it  becomes  so  strong  as  to 
remain  when  the  candle  is  withdrawn.  The  idea  therefore 
grows  by  exactly  the  same  process  as  a  bone  grows ;  that  is, 
by  the  successive  incorporation  of  like  with  like.  By  the  in- 
tegration of  a  long  series  of  similar  impressions,  one  portion  of 
consciousness  thus  becomes  differentiated  from  the  rest,  and 
there  emerges  the  idea  of  the  flame.  Time  and  repetition  are 
therefore  the  indispensable  conditions  of  the  process.* 

Now,  when  the  candle  is  brought,  the  child  recognizes  or 
knows  it ;  that  is,  it  perceives  it  to  be  like  the  whole  series 
of  impressions  of  the  candle-flame  formerly  experienced.  It 
knows  it  because  the  impression  produced  agrees  with  the  idea. 
In  this  way,  by  numerous  repetitions  of  impressions,  the  child's 
first  ideas  arise  ;  and,  in  this  way,  all  objects  are  known.  We 
know  things,  because,  when  we  see,  hear,  touch,  or  taste  them, 
the  present  impression  spontaneously  blends  with  like  impres- 
sions before  experienced.  We  know  or  recognize  an  external 
object  not  by  the  single  impression  it  produces,  but  because 


*  "  The  single  taste  of  sugar,  by  repetition,  impresses  the  mind  more  and 
more,  and,  by  this  circumstance,  becomes  gradually  easier  to  retain  in  idea. 
The  smell  of  a  rose,  in  like  manner,  after  a  thousand  repetitions,  comes  much 
nearer  to  an  Independent  ideal  persistence  than  after  twenty  repetitions.  So 
it  is  with  all  the  senses,  high  and  low.  Apart  altogether  from  the  association 
of  two  or  more  distinct  sensations,  jn  a  group  or  in  a  train,  there  is  a  fixing 
process  going  on  with  every  individual  sensation,  rendering  it  more  easy  to 
retain  when  the  original  has  passed  away,  and  more  vivid  when  by  means  of 
association  it  is  afterward  reproduced.  This  is  one  great  part  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  senses.  The  simplest  impression  that  can  be  made  of  taste,  smell, 
touch,  hearing,  sight,  needs  repetition  in  order  to  endure  of  its  own  accord ; 
even  in  the  most  persistent  sense— the  sense  of  seeing— the  impressions  on 
the  infant  mind  that  do  not  stir  a  strong  feeling  will  vanish  as  soon  as  the 
eye  is  turned  some  other  way."— Professor  Sain, 


HOW   THE   MIND   GROWS.  289 

that  impression  revives  a  whole  train  or  group  of  previous  dis- 
criminations that  are  like  or  related  to  it ;  while  the  number 
of  those  that  are  called  up  is  the  measure  of  our  intelligence 
regarding  it.  If  something  is  seen,  heard,  felt,  or  tasted, 
which  links  itself  to  no  kindred  idea,  we  say  "  we  do  not  know 
it ; "  if  it  partially  agrees  with  an  idea,  or  revives  a  few  dis- 
criminations, we  know  something  about  it,  and  the  completer 
the  agreement  the  more  perfect  the  knowledge. 

As  to  know  a  thing  is  to  perceive  its  differences  from  other 
things,  and  its  likeness  to  other  things,  it  is  therefore  strictly 
an  act  of  classing.  This  is  involved  in  every  act  of  thought, 
for  to  recognize  a  thing  is  to  classify  its  impression  or  idea 
with  previous  states  of  feeling.  Classification,  in  all  its  aspects 
and  applications,  is  but  the  putting  together  of  things  that  are 
alike— the  grouping  of  objects  by  their  resemblances;  and  as 
to  know  a  thing  is  to  know  that  it  is  this  or  that,  to  know 
what  it  is  like  and  what  it  is  unlike,  we  begin  to  classify  as 
soon  as  we  begin  to  think.  When  the  child  learns  to  know  a 
tree,  for  example,  he  discriminates  it  from  objects  that  differ 
from  it,  and  identifies  it  with  those  that  resemble  it ;  and  this 
is  simply  to  class  it  as  a  tree.  When  he  becomes  more  intelli- 
gent regarding  it — when,  for  instance,  he  sees  that  it  is  an  elm 
or  an  apple-tree — he  simply  perceives  a  larger  number  of  char- 
acters of  likeness  and  difference. 

How  our  degrees  of  knowledge  resolve  themselves  into 
successive  classifications  has  been  well  illustrated  by  Herbert 
Spencer.  He  says:  "The  same  object  may,  according  as  the 
distance  or  the  degree  of  light  permits,  be  identified  as  a 
particular  negro;  or,  more  generally,  as  a  negro;  or,  more 
generally  still,  as  a  man ;  or,  yet  more  generally,  as  some  liv- 
ing creature ;  or  most  generally,  as  a  solid  body ;  in  each  of 
which  cases  the  implication  is,  that  the  present  impression  is 
like  a  certain  order  of  past  impressions." 

In  early  infancy,  when  the  mind  is  first  making  the  ac- 
quaintance of  outward  things,  mental  growth  consists  essen- 
tially in  the  production  of  new  ideas  by  repetition  of  sensa- 
tions, although  such  ideas  never  arise  singly,  but  are  always 
linked  together  in  their  origin.  But,  when  a  stock  of  ideas 


290  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

has  been  formed  in  this  manner,  the  mental  growth  is  mainly 
carried  forward  by  new  combinations  among  them.  The  sim- 
pler ideas  once  acquired,  the  development  of  intelligence  con- 
sists largely  in  associating  them  in  new  relations  and  groups 
of  relations.  The  perception  of  likeness  and  difference  is  the 
essential  work  that  is  going  on  all  the  time,  but  the  compari- 
sons and  discriminations  are  constantly  becoming  more  exten- 
sive, more  minute,  and  more  accurate.  A  number  of  elemen- 
tary ideas  thus  become,  as  it  were,  fused  or  consolidated  into 
one  complex  idea ;  and,  by  a  still  further  recognition  of  like- 
ness and  difference,  this  is  classed  with  a  new  group,  and  this 
again  with  still  larger  clusters  of  associated  ideas. 

The  conception  of  an  orange,  for  example,  is  compounded 
of  the  elementary  notions  of  color,  form,  size,  roughness,  re- 
sistance, weight,  odor,  and  taste.  These  elements  are  all 
bound  up  in  one  complex  idea.  The  idea  of  an  apple,  a  pear,  a 
peach,  or  a  plum,  is  in  each  case  made  up  of  a  different  group 
of  component  ideas,  while  the  notion  of  a  basket  of  different 
fruits  is  a  cluster  of  these  groups  of  still  higher  complexity, 
but  still  represented  in  thought  as  one  complex  idea,  the  ele- 
ments of  which  are  united  by  the  relations  of  contrast  and 
resemblance.  Or,  again,  the  child  may  begin  with  a  large, 
vague  idea,  as  a  tree,  for  example,  and  then,  as  intelligence 
concerning  it  progresses,  he  decomposes  it  into  its  component 
ideas,  as  trunk,  branches,  leaves,  roots,  and  these  into  still  mi- 
nuter parts.  There  is  a  growing  mental  heterogeneity  through 
the  increasing  perception  of  likeness  and  difference.  Thus,  as 
soon  as  ideas  are  formed,  they  begin  to  be  used  over  and  over, 
and  this  process  is  ever  continued.*  An  old  idea  in  a  new  re- 
lation or  grouping  has  a  new  meaning — becomes  a  new  fact  or 


*  Our  reason  consists  in  using  an  old  fact  in  new  circumstances,  through 
the  power  of  discerning  the  agreement ;  this  is  a  vast  saving  of  the  labor  of 
acquisition ;  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  original  growths  requisite  for  oar 
education.  When  we  have  any  thing  new  to  learn,  as  a  new  piece  of  music, 
or  a  new  proposition  in  Euclid,  we  fall  back  upon  our  previously-formed  com- 
binations, musical  or  geometrical,  so  far  as  they  will  apply,  and  merely  tack 
certain  of  them  together  in  correspondence  with  the  new  case.  The  method 
of  acquiring  by  patch-work  sets  in  early,  and  predominates  increasingly.— 
Bain. 


HOW   THE    MIND    GEOWS.  291 

a  new  truth.  The  perception  of  new  resemblances  and  of  new 
differences  gives  rise  to  new  groupings  and  new  classings  of 
ideas,  and  thus  the  mind  grows  into  a  complex  and  highly- 
differentiated  organism  of  intelligence,  in  which  the  internal 
order  of  thought-relations  answers  to  the  external  order  of  re- 
lations among  things. 

That  which  occurs  at  this  earliest  stage  of  mental  growth 
is  exactly  what  takes  place  in  the  whole  course  of  unfolding  in- 
telligence. Simple  as  these  operations  may  seem,  and  begun 
by  the  infant  as  soon  as  it  is  born,  in  their  growing  complexi- 
ties, they  constitute  the  whole  fabric  of  the  intellect.  What 
we  term  the  "  mental  faculties  "  are  not  the  ultimate  elements 
of  mind,  but  only  different  modes  of  the  mental  activity ;  and, 
as  one  law  of  growth  evolves  all  the  various  organs  and  tis- 
sues of  the  bodily  structure,  so  one  law  of  growth  evolves  all 
the  diversified  "faculties"  of  the  mental  structure.  Under 
psychological  analysis,  the  operations  of  reason,  judgment, 
imagination,  calculation,  and  the  acquisitions  of  the  most 
advanced  minds  yield  at  last  the  same  simple  elements — 
the  perceptions  of  likenesses  and  differences  among  things 
thought  about ;  while  memory  is  simply  the  power  of  re- 
viving these  distinctions  in  consciousness.  Whatever  the 
object  of  thought,  to  know  in  what  respects  it  differs 
from  all  other  things,  and  in  what  respects  it  resembles 
them,  is  to  know  all  about  it — is  to  exhaust  the  action 
of  the  intellect  upon  it.  The  way  the  child  gets  its  early 
knowledge  is  the  way  all  real  knowledge  is  obtained.  When 
it  discovers  the  likeness  between  sugar,  cake,  and  certain 
fruits,  that  is,  when  it  integrates  them  in  thought  as  sweet, 
it  is  making  just  such  an  induction  as  Newton  made  in 
discovering  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  was  but  to  dis- 
cover the  likeness  among  celestial  and  terrestrial  motions. 
And  as  with  physical  objects,  so  also  with  human  actions. 
The  child  may  run  around  the  house  and  play  with  its  toys ; 
it  must  not  break  things  or  play  with  the  fire.  Here,  again, 
are  relations  of  likeness  and  unlikeness,  forming  a  basis 
of  moral  classification.  The  judge  on  the  bench  is  con- 
stantly doing  the  same  thing;  that  is,  tracing  out  the  like 


292  THE   EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

nesses  of  given    actions,   and    classing    them    as    right    01 
wrong.* 

Having  thus  formed  some  idea  of  how  mental  growth 
takes  place,  let  us  now  roughly  note  how  far  it  proceeds  in 
the  first  three  or  four  years  of  childhood. 

III. — EXTENT   OP  EARLY  MENTAL   GROWTH. 

From  the  hour  of  birth,  through  all  the  waking  moments, 
there  pour  in  through  the  eye  ever-varying  impressions  of  light 
and  color,  from  the  dimness  of  twilight  to  the  utmost  solar 
refulgence,  which  are  reproduced  as  a  highly-diversified  lumi- 
nous consciousness.  Impressions  of  sound  of  all  qualities  and 
intensities,  loud  and  faint,  shrill  and  dull,  harsh  and  musical, 
in  endless  succession,  enter  the  ear,  and  give  rise  to  a  varied 
auditory  consciousness.  Ever-changing  contrasts  of  touch 
acquaint  the  mind  with  hard  things  and  soft,  light  and  heavy, 
rough  and  smooth,  round,  angular,*  brittle,  and  flexible,  and 
are  wrought  into  a  knowledge  of  things  within  reach.  And 
so,  also,  with  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell.  This  multitude 
of  contrasted  impressions,  representing  the  endless  diversity 
of  the  surrounding  world,  has  been  organized  into  a  connected 
and  coherent  body  of  knowledge. 

After  two  or  three  years  the  face  that  was  at  first  blank 
becomes  bright  with  the  light  of  numberless  recognitions. 
The  child  knows  all  the  common  objects  of  the  house,  the 
garden,  and  the  street,  and  it  not  only  knows  them  apart,  but 
it  has  extended  its  discriminations  of  likeness  and  difference 
to  a  great  many  of  their  characters.  It  has  found  out  about 
differences  and  resemblances  of  form,  size,  color,  weight,  trans- 
parency, plasticity,  toughness,  brittleness,  fluidity,  warmth, 
taste,  and  various  other  properties  of  the  solid  and  liquid  sub- 


*  To  those  who  care  to  pursue  this  important  subject  of  mental  growth, 
which  is  here  hardly  more  than  hinted  at,  I  would  recommend  the  "Princi- 
ples of  Psychology,"  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  now  being  published  in  parts 
by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  Mr.  Spencer  considers  mind  from  the  point  of  view  of 
Evolution,  and  his  work  is,  beyond  doubt,  the  most  important  contribution  to 
this  aspect  of  psychological  science  that  has  yet  been  made.  I  have  to  ac- 
knowledge my  own  indebtedness  to  it. 


EXTENT  OF  EAKLY  MENTAL  GROWTH.      293 

Btancea  of  which  it  has  had  experience.  It  has  noted  peculi- 
arities among  many  animals  and  plants,  and  the  distinctions, 
traits,  and  habits  of  persons. 

Besides  this,  it  has  learned  to  associate  names  with  its 
ideas ;  it  has  acquired  a  language.  The  number  of  words  it 
uses  to  express  things  and  actions,  and  qualities,  degrees,  and 
relations,  among  these  things  and  actions,  shows  the  extent  to 
which  its  discriminations  have  been  carried.  Groups  of  ideas 
are  integrated  into  trains  of  thought,  and  words  into  corre- 
sponding trains  of  sentences  to  communicate  them.  Nor  is 
this  all.  There  is  still  another  order  of  acquisitions  in  which 
the  child  has  made  remarkable  proficiency.  The  infant  is 
endowed  with  a  spontaneous  activity :  it  moves,  struggles, 
and  throws  about  its  limbs  as  soon  as  it  is  born.  But  its 
actions  are  at  first  aimless  and  confused.  As  it  knows  nothing, 
of  course,  it  can  do  nothing ;  but,  with  the  growth  of  dis- 
tinct ideas  and  feelings,  there  is  also  a  growth  of  special  move- 
ments in  connection  with  them.  It  has  to  find  out  by  innu- 
merable trials  how  to  creep,  to  walk,  to  hold  things,  and  to 
feed  itself.  To  see  an  object  and  to  be  able  to  seize  it,  or  to 
go  and  get  it,  result  from  an  adjustment  of  visual  impres- 
sions with  muscular  movements,  which  it  has  taken  thousands 
of  experiments  to  bring  under  control.  The  vocal  apparatus 
has  been  brought  under  such  marvellous  command  that  hun- 
dreds of  different  words  are  uttered,  each  requiring  a  differ- 
ent combination  of  movements  of  the  chest,  larynx,  tongue, 
and  lips.  Numerous  aptitudes  and  dexterities  are  achieved, 
and,  when,  stimulated  by  curiosity,  it  examines  its  toy  and 
breaks  it  open  to  find  "  what  makes  it  go,"  it  has  entered  upon 
a  career  of  active  experiment,  as  truly  as  the  man  of  science  in 
his  laboratory. 

rv. — NATURE'S  EDUCATIONAL  METHOD. 
Such  is  Nature's  method  of  education,  and  such  its  earliest 
results.  Human  beings  are  born  into  a  world  of  stubborn 
realities;  of  laws  that  are  fraught  with  life  and  death  in 
their  inflexible  course.  What  the  new-born  creature  shall  be 
taught  is  too  important  to  be  left  to  any  contingency,  and  so 


294:      THE  EDUCATIONAL  CLAIMS  OF  BOTANT. 

Nature  takes  in  hand  the  early  training  of  the  whole  human 
race,  and  secures  that  rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  proper- 
ties of  things  which  is  alike  indispensable  to  all.  It  is,  how- 
ever, only  the  obvious  characters  and  simpler  relations  of 
objects  which  are  thrust  conspicuously  upon  the  attention 
that  are  recognized  in  childhood.  But  the  method  of  bringing 
out  mind  has  been  established.  Nature's  early  tuition  has 
given  shape  to  the  mental  constitution,  and  determined  the  con- 
ditions and  order  of  its  future  development.  The  child  is  sent 
to  school — the  school  of  experience — as  soon  as  it  is  born,  and 
Nature's  method  of  leading  out  the  intelligence  is  that  of 
growth.  She  roots  mental  activity  in  organic  processes,  and 
thus  times  the  rate  of  acquisition  to  the  march  of  organic 
changes.  She  is  never  in  haste,  but  always  at  work ;  never 
crams,  but  ever  repeats,  assimilates,  and  organizes.  Her  policy 
of  producing  vast  effects  by  simple  means  is  not  departed  from 
in  the  realm  of  mind ;  indeed,  it  is  more  marvellous  here  than 
anywhere  else.  While  the  organic  world  is  made  up  almost  en- 
tirely of  but  four  chemical  elements,  the  intellectual  world  is 
constituted  wholly  of  but  two  ultimate  elements,  the  percep- 
tion of  likeness  and  the  perception  of  difference  among  ob- 
jects of  thought.  These  elements  are  wrought  into  the  mental 
constitution  through  the  direct  observation  and  experience  of 
things.  Mind  is  called  forth  by  the  spontaneous  interaction 
of  the  growing  organism  and  the  agencies  and  objects  of  sur- 
rounding Nature. 

The  school-period  at  length  arrives,  and  Art  comes  forward 
to  assume  the  direction  of  processes  that  Nature  has  thus 
far  conducted.  But  her  course  is  plainly  mapped  out; 
the  work  begun  is  to  be  continued.  New  helps  and  re- 
sources may  be  needed,  but  the  end  and  the  essential  means 
should  be  the  same.  Mental  growth  is  to  be  carried  by  cul- 
tivation to  still  higher  stages,  but  by  the  same  processes 
hitherto  employed.  The  discriminations  of  likeness  and  dif- 
ference by  which  all  things  are  known,  the  comparison,  classi- 
fication, and  association  of  ideas  in  which  knowledge  arises, 
are  to  become  more  accurate,  more  extensive,  and  more  sys- 
tematic. To  do  this  the  mind  is  to  be  maintained  in  living 


NATURE'S  EDUCATIONAL  METHOD.  295 

contact  with  the  realities  which  environ  it,  but  which  are  now 
to  be  regularly  studied.  We  have  here  the  clear  criterion  by 
which  educational  systems  must  be  judged ;  how  does  the  pre- 
vailing practice  answer  to  the  test  ? 


V. — DEFICIENCY  OP   EXISTING    SCHOOL-METHODS. 

Nothing  is  more  obvious  than  that  the  child's  entrance 
upon  school-life,  instead  of  being  the  wise  continuation  of  pro- 
cesses already  begun,  is  usually  an  abrupt  transition  to  a  new, 
artificial,  and  totally  different  sphere  of  mental  experience. 
Although,  in  the  previous  period,  it  has  learned  more  than  it 
ever  will  again  in  the  same  time,  and  learned  it  according  to 
the  fundamental  laws  of  growing  intelligence,  yet  the  current 
notion  is,  that  education  "begins  with  the  child's  entrance  upon 
school-life.  How  erroneous  this  is  we  have  sufficiently  seen. 
That  which  does  begin  at  this  time  is  not  education,  but  simply 
the  acquirement  of  new  helps  to  it.  The  first  thing  at  school 
is  usually  the  study  of  words,  spelling,  reading,  and  writing — 
that  is,  to  get  the  use  of  written  language.  This  is,  of  course, 
important  and  indispensable.  To  be  able  to  accumulate,  com- 
pare, arrange,  and  preserve  ideas,  and  put  them  to  their  largest 
uses,  it  is  necessary  to  mark  them.  "Words  are  these  marks  or 
signs  of  ideas,  and,  as  such,  have  an  inestimable  value.  Words, 
as  the  marks  of  ideas,  are  the  representatives  of  knowledge, 
and  books  which  contain  them  become  the  invaluable  de- 
positories of  the  world's  accumulating  thought.  It  is  ex- 
actly because  of  their  great  importance  and  their  intimate 
relations  to  our  intellectual  life,  that  we  should  be  always 
vividly  conscious  of  their  exact  nature  and  office. 

But  words  are  not  ideas,  they  are  only  the  symbols  of  ideas ; 
language  is  not  knowledge,  but  the  representative  of  it.  Labels 
have  a  value  of  convenience,  which  depends  upon  the  intrin- 
sic value  of  what  they  point  out.  Now,  there  is  a  constant 
and  insidious  tendency  in  education  to  invert  these  relations — 
to  exalt  the  husk  above  its  contents,  the  tools  above  their  work, 
the  label  above  its  object,  words  above  the  things  for  which 
they  stand.  The  means  of  culture  thus  become  the  ends  of 


296  THE   EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

0 

culture,  and  education  is  emptied  of  its  substantial  purpose. 
In  the  lower  institutions,  while  the  acquisition  and  organiza- 
tion of  ideas  in  which  education  really  consists  are  neglected; 
to  spell  accurately,  to  read  fluently,  to  define  promptly,  and  to 
write  neatly,  are  the  ideals  of  school-room  accomplishment.  In 
the  higher  institutions,  this  ideal  expands  into  the  proficient 
command  of  a  multitude  of  words,  and  skill  in  the  arts  of  ex- 
pression, so  that  the  student  piles  language  upon  language 
until  he  has  tagged  half  a  dozen  labels  to  each  of  his  scanty, 
and  ill-conceived  ideas. 

The  glaring  deficiency  of  our  popular  systems  of  instruc- 
tion is,  that  words  are  not  subordinated  to  their  real  purposes, 
but  are  permitted  to  usurp  that  supreme  attention  which 
should  be  given  to  the  formation  of  ideas  by  the  study  of 
things.  It  is  at  this  point  that  true  mental  growth  is  checked, 
and  the  minds  of  children  are  switched  off  from  the  main  line  of 
natural  development  into  a  course  of  artificial  acquisition,  in 
which  the  semblance  of  knowledge  takes  the  place  of  the  real- 
ity of  knowledge. 

We  have  seen  that  the  growth  of  mind  results  from  the 
exercise  of  its  powers  upon  the  direct  objects  of  experience, 
and  consists  in  its  recognition  of  distinctions  among  the  prop- 
erties and  relations  of  things,  and  in  the  classing  and  organ- 
ization of  ideas  thus  acquired.  These  operations  can  be 
facilitated  by  the  use  of  words  and  books,  but  only  when  the 
ideas  themselves  are  first  clearly  conceived  as  the  accurate 
representations  of  things.  But  the  ordinary  word-studies  of 
our  schools,  which  are  truly  designed  to  assist  these  opera- 
tions, are  actually  made  to  exclude  them.  The  child  glides 
into  the  habit  of  accepting  words  for  ideas,  and  thus  evades 
those  mental  actions  which  are  only  to  be  performed  upon  the 
ideas  themselves. 

The  existing  systems  of  instruction  are  therefore  deficient, 
by  making  no  adequate  provision  for  cultivating  the  growth 
of  ideas  by  the  exercise  of  the  observing  powers  of  children. 
Observation,  the  capacity  of  recognizing  distinctions,  and  of 
being  mentally  alive  to  the  objects  and  actions  around  us,  is 
only  to  be  acquired  by  practice,  and  therefore  requires  to  be- 


DEFICIENCY   OF   EXISTING  SCHOOL  METHODS.       297 

come  a  regular  and  habitual  mental  exercise,  and  to  have  a 
fundamental  place  in  education. 

The  importance  of  training  the  young  mind  to  habits  of 
correct  observation,  to  form  judgments  of  things  noted,  and 
to  describe  correctly  the  results  of  observation,  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated.  It  has  been  well  remarked  that,  "without 
an  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  visible  and  tangible  proper- 
ties of  things,  our  conceptions  must  be  erroneous,  our  infer- 
ences fallacious,  and  our  operations  unsuccessful.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  senses  neglected,  all  after-education  partakes  of  a 
drowsiness,  a  haziness,  an  insufficiency,  which  it  is  impossible 
to  cure.  Indeed,  if  we  consider  it,  we  shall  find  that  exhaust- 
ive observation  is  an  element  of  all  great  success.  It  is  not  to 
artists,  naturalists,  and  men  of  science  only,  that  it  is  needful ; 
it  is  not  only  that  the  skilful  physician  depends  on  it  for  the 
correctness  of  his  diagnosis,  and  that  to  the  good  engineer  it 
is  so  important,  that  some  years  in  the  workshop  are  prescribed 
for  him ;  but  we  may  see  that  the  philosopher  also  is  funda- 
mentally one  who  observes  relationships  of  things  which  others 
had  overlooked,  and  that  the  poet,  too,  is  one  who  sees  the  fine 
facts  in  Nature  which  all  recognize  when  pointed  out,  but  did 
not  before  remark.  Nothing  requires  more  to  be  insisted  on 
than  that  vivid  and  complete  impressions  are  all-essential. 
No  sound  fabric  of  wisdom  can  be  woven  out  of  a  rotten,  raw 
material." 

It  needs  hardly  to  be  repeated  that  observation  is  the  start- 
ing-point of  knowledge,  and  the  basis  of  judgment  and  induc- 
tive reasoning.  In  the  chaos  of  opinions  among  men,  the  con- 
flicts are  usually  on  the  data,  which  have  not  been  observed 
with  sufficient  care.  Dispute  is  endless  until  the  facts  are 
known,  and,  when  this  happens,  dispute  is  generally  ended. 
Dr.  Cullen,  long  ago,  remarked  :  "  There  are  more  false  facts 
in  the  world  than  false  hypotheses  to  explain  them ;  there  is, 
in  truth,  nothing  that  men  seem  to  admit  so  lightly  as  an 
asserted  fact." 

Children  should,  therefore,  be  taught  to  see  for  themselves, 
and  to  think  for  themselves  on  the  basis  of  what  they  have 
geen.  In  this  way  only  can  they  learn  to  weigh  the  true  value 


298  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

of  evidence,  and  to  guard  against  that  carelessness  of  assump- 
tion and  that  credulous  confidence  in  the  loose  statements 
of  others,  which  is  one  of  the  gross  mental  deficiencies  we 
everywhere  encounter.  This  is  one  of  the  rights  of  the  under- 
standing too  little  respected  in  the  school-room.  Instead  of 
being  called  into  independent  activity,  children's  minds  are 
rather  repressed  by  authority.  In  the  whole  system  of  word- 
teaching  the  statements  have  to  be  taken  on  trust.  "  This  is  the 
rule,"  and  "that  the  usage,"  and  the  say-so  of  book  and  teacher 
is  final.  Granted  that  much,  at  any  rate,  in  education  is  to  be 
accepted  on  authority,  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  that  there 
Should  be,  in  some  departments,  such  an  assiduous  cultivation 
of  personal  observation  and  independent  judgment  as  may 
serve  to  guard  against  errors  from  this  source. 

It  may  be  said  that  arithmetic  forms  an  exception  to  what 
is  here  stated  respecting  the  prevalence  of  authority  in  schools, 
as  its  operations  are  capable  of  independent  proof.  This  is 
true,  but  the  exception  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot  serve 
as  a  correction;  for  it  reasons  not  from  observed  facts,  but  from 
assumed  numerical  data.  Mathematics,  says  Prof.  Huxley,  "  is 
that  study  which  knows  nothing  of  observation,  nothing  of 
induction,  nothing  of  experiment,  nothing  of  causation." 

The  foregoing  strictures,  I  am  aware,  have  a  variable  appli- 
cability to  different  schools.  Many  teachers  are  alive  to  these 
evils,  and  strive  in  various  ways  to  mitigate  them ;  but  the 
statement,  nevertheless,  holds  sadly  true  in  its  general  applica- 
tion. There  is  a  radical  deficiency  of  existing  educational 
methods  which  cannot  be  supplied  by  the  mere  make-shift  in- 
genuity of  instructors,  but  requires  some  systematic  and  effec- 
tual measure  of  relief. 

VI. — WHAT  IS  NOW  MOST  NEEDED. 

To  supply  this  unquestionable  deficiency,  we  should  de- 
mand the  introduction  into  primary  education,  in  addition  to 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  of  A  FOURTH  FUNDAMENTAL 

BKANCH  OF  STUDY,  WHICH  SHALL  AFFORD  A  SYSTEMATIC  TRAIN- 
ING OF  THE  OBSERVING  POWERS.  We  are  entitled  to  require 
that,  when  the  child  enters  school,  it  shall  not  take  leave  of  the 


WHAT  IS   HOW   MOST  NEEDED.  299 

universe  of  fact  and  law,  but  that  its  mind  shall  be  kept  in 
intimate  relation  with  Nature  in  some  one  of  her  great  divis- 
ions, and  that  the  knowledge  acquired  shall  be  actual  and 
thorough,  and  suited  to  call  out  those  operations  which  are 
essential  to  higher  mental  growth.  It  is  agreed  by  many  of  the 
ablest  thinkers  that  such  an  element  of  mental  training  is  now 
the  urgent  want  of  general  education.  Dr.  Whewell  thus  de- 
fines the  present  need : 

"  One  obvious  mode  of  effecting  this  discipline  of  the  mind  is  the 
exact  and  solid  study  of  some  portion  of  inductive  knowledge.  .  .  . 
botany,  comparative  anatomy,  geology,  chemistry,  for  instance.  But  I 
say,  the  exact  and  solid  knowledge  ;  not  a  mere  verbal  knowledge,  but  a 
knowledge  which  is  real  in  its  character,  though  it  may  be  elementary 
and  limited  in  its  extent.  The  knowledge  of  which  I  speak  must  be  a 
knowledge  of  things,  and  not  merely  of  names  of  things  ;  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  operations  and  productions  of  Nature  as  they  appear  to 
the  eye ;  not  merely  an  acquaintance  with  what  has  been  said  about 
them ;  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  Nature,  seen  in  special  experiments 
and  observations  before  they  are  conceived  in  general  terms  ;  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  types  of  natural  forms,  gathered  from  individual  cases 
already  familiar.  By  such  study  of  one  or  more  departments  of  induc- 
tive knowledge,  the  mind  may  escape  from  the  thraldom  and  illusion 
which  reigns  in  the  world  of  mere  words." 

The  increasing  influence  of  science  over  the  course  of 
the  world's  affairs  is  undeniable.  Not  only  has  it  already 
become  a  controlling  force  in  civilization,  but  it  is  steadily 
invading  the  higher'  spheres  of  thought,  and,  by  its  constant 
revisions  and  extensions  of  knowledge,  it  is  rapidly  reshaping 
the  opinion  of  the  world.  That  such  an  agency  is  destined  to 
exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  culture  of  the  human 
mind,  is  inevitable.  Already,  indeed,  it  has  become  a  recog- 
nized element  of  general  instruction,  but  it  has  been  pursued 
in  such  a  fragmentary  and  incoherent  way,  that  its  legitimate 
mental  influence  is  far  from  having  been  realized.  The  im- 
mediate problem,  then,  is  how  to  organize  the  scientific  ele- 
ment of  study  so  as  to  gain  its  benefits,  as  a  mental  discipline. 
Each  of  the  prominent  sciences — physics,  chemistry,  geology, 
botany — has  its  special  advantages,  and  is  entitled  to  a  place 
in  a  liberal  course  of  study.  But  some  one  must  be  selected 


300  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OP   BOTANY. 

which  is  best  fitted  to  be  generally  introduced  into  primary 
schools.  The  work  must  begin  here,  if  it  is  to  be  thoroughly 
done. 

The  system  of  teaching  by  object-lessons  is  an  attempt  to 
meet  the  present  requirement  in  the  sphere  of  primary  educa- 
tion. But  these  efforts  have  been  rather  well-intentioned  grop- 
ings  after  a  desirable  result  than  satisfactory  realizations  of  it. 
The  method  is  theoretically  correct,  and  some  benefit  cannot 
fail  to  have  resulted ;  but  the  practice  has  proved  incoherent, 
desultory,  and  totally  insufficient  as  a  training  of  the  observing 
powers.  Nor  can  this  be  otherwise  so  long  as  all  sorts  of  ob- 
jects are  made  to  serve  as  "  lessons,"  while  the  exercises  con- 
sist merely  in  learning  a  few  obvious  and  unrelated  characters. 
Although,  in  infancy,  objects  are  presented  at  random,  yet,  if 
mental  growth  is  to  be  definitely  directed,  they  must  be  present- 
ed in  relation.  A  lesson  one  day  on  a  bone,  the  next  on  a  piece 
of  lead,  and  the  next  on  a  flower,  may  be  excellent  for  impart- 
ing "  information,"  but  the  lack  of  relation  among  these  ob- 
jects unfits  them  to  be  employed  for  developing  connected  and 
dependent  thought.  This  teaching  can  be  thoroughly  success- 
ful only  where  the  "objects"  studied  are  connected  together  in 
a  large,  complex  whole,  as  a  part  of  the  order  of  Nature.  The 
elementary  details  must  be  such  as  children  can  readily  appre- 
hend, while  the  characters  and  relations  are  so  varied  and  nu- 
merous as  to  permit  an  extended  course  of  acquisition  issuing 
in  a  large  body  of  scientific  principles.  Only  in  a  field  so  broad 
and  inexhaustible  as  to  give  play  to  the  mental  activities  in 
their  continuous  expansion  can  object-studies  have  that  real 
disciplinary  influence  which  is  now  so  desirable  an  element  of 
popular  education. 

What  we  most  urgently  need  is  an  objective  course  of 
study  which  shall  train  the  observing  powers  as  mathematics 
trains  the  power  of  calculation.  From  the  time  the  child  be- 
gins to  count,  until  the  man  has  mastered  the  calculus,  there 
is  provided  an  unbroken  series  of  exercises  of  ever-increasing 
complexity,  suited  to  unfold  the  mathematical  faculty.  We 
want  a  parallel  course  of  objective  exercises,  not  to  be  dis- 
patched in  a  term  or  a  year,  but  running  through  the  whole 


ADVANTAGES    OFFEKED   BY   BOTANY. 


301 


period  of  education,  which  shall  give  the  observing  and  induc- 
tive faculties  a  corresponding  continuous  and  systematic  un- 
folding. What  subject  is  best  fitted  for  this  purpose  ? 

\ 

VII. — ADVANTAGES  OFFERED  BY  BOTANY. 

The  largest  number  of  advantages  for  the  purpose  we  have 
in  view  will  be  found  combined  in  that  branch  of  natural  his^ 
tory  which  treats  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  "While  each  of 
the  sciences  has  its  special  claim  as  a  subject  of  study,  it  is 
thought  that  none  of  them  can  compare  with  Botany  in  ful- 
filling the  various  conditions  now  indicated,  and  which  entitle 
it  to  take  a  regular  and  fundamental  place  in  our  scheme  of 
common-school  instruction.  Its  prominent  claims  are : 

I.  The  materials  furnished  by  the  vegetable  kingdom  for 
direct  observation  and  practical  study  are  abundant,  and  easily 
accessible,  overhead,  underfoot,  and  all  around — grass,  weeds, 
flowers,  trees — open  and  common  to  everybody.      There  is 
no  expense,  as  in  experimental  science.    And,  in  meeting  this 
fundamental  condition  of  a  universal  objective  study,  it  may 
be  claimed  that  Botany  is  without  a  rival. 

II.  The  collection  of  specimens  may  be  carried  on  as  regu- 
larly as  any  other  school-exercise,  while  they  are  just  as  suit- 
able objects  upon  the  scholar's  desk  as  the  books  themselves. 
They  cannot  interfere  with  the  order  and  propriety  of  the 
class-room. 

III.  The  elementary  facts  of  Botany  are  so  simple,  that  their 
study  can  be  commenced  in  early  childhood,  and  so  numerous 
as  to  sustain  a  prolonged  course  of  observation.   The  characters 
of  plants  which  engage  attention  at  this  period  of  acquisition 
are  external,  requiring  neither  magnifying-glass  nor  dissecting- 
knife  to  find  them. 

IV.  From  these  rudimentary  facts  the  pupil  may  proceed 
gradually  to  the  more  complex,  from  the  concrete  to  the  ab- 
stract— from  observations  to  the  truths  that  rest  upon  observa- 
tion, in  a  natural  order  of  ascent,  as  required  by  the  laws  of 
mental  growth.    If  properly  commenced,  the  study  may  be 
stopped  at  any  stage,  and  the  advantages  gained  are  substan- 


302  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMb    OF   BOTANY. 

tial  and  valuable,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  capable  of  task- 
ing the  highest  intelligence  through  a  lifetime  of  study. 

V.  The  means  are  thus  furnished  for  organizing  object- 
teaching  into  a  systematic  method,  so  that  it  may  be  pursued 
definitely  and  constantly  through  a  course   of  successively 
higher  and  more  comprehensive  exercises. 

VI.  Botany  is  unrivalled  in  the  scope  it  offers  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  descriptive  powers,  as  its  vocabulary  is  more  co- 
pious, precise,  and  well-settled  than  that  of  any  other  of  the 
natural  sciences.     Upon  this  point — most  important  in  its  edu- 
cational aspect — Prof.  Arthur  Henfrey  has  well  remarked : 

"  The  technical  language  of  Botany,  as  elaborated  by  Linnaeus  and 
liis  school,  has  long  been  the  admiration  of  logical  and  philosophical 
writers,  and  has  been  carried  to  great  perfection.  Every  word  has  its 
definition,  and  can  convey  one  notion  to  those  who  have  once  mastered 
the  language.  The  technicalities,  therefore,  of  botanical  language, 
which  are  vulgarly  regarded  as  imperfections,  and  as  repulsive  to  the 
inquirer,  are,  in  reality,  the  very  marks  of  its  completeness,  and,  far 
from  offering  a  reason  for  withholding  the  science  from  ordinary  educa- 
tion, constitute  its  great  recommendation  as  a  method  of  training  in 
accuracy  of  expression  and  habits  of  describing  definitely  and  unequivo- 
cally the  observations  made  by  the  senses.  The  acquisition  of  the  terms 
applied  to  the  different  parts  of  plants  exercises  the  memory,  while  the 
mastery  of  the  use  of  the  adjectives  of  terminology  cultivates,  in  a  most 
beneficial  manner,  a  habit  of  accuracy  and  perspicuity  in  the  use  of 
language." 

Botanical  language  is  the  most  perfect  that  is  applied  to 
the  description  of  external  nature,  but  its  accuracy  is  not  the 
accuracy  of  geometry,  the  terms  of  which  call  up  the  same 
sharply-defined  invariable  conceptions.  But  the  characters  of 
natural  objects  are  not  such  rigid  and  exact  repetitions  of  each 
other.  Nature  is  constantly  varying  her  types.  The  applica- 
tion of  botanical  terms  is,  therefore,  not  a  mere  mechanical  act 
of  the  mind,  but  involves  the  exercise  of  judgment. 

VII.  It  is  congenial  with  the  pleasurable  activity  of  child- 
hood, and  makes  that  activity  subservient  to  mental  ends. 
It  enforces  rambles  and  excursions  in  quest  of  specimens, 
and  thus  tends  to  relieve  the  sedentary  confinement  of  the 


ADVANTAGES    OFFERED   BY   BOTANY.  303 

school-room,  and  to   promote  health  by  moderate  open-air 
exercise. 

VIII.  The  knowledge  it  imparts  has  a  practical  value  in 
various  important  directions.     It  is  indispensable  to  the  intel- 
ligent pursuit  of  agriculture  and  horticulture — avocations  in 
which  more  people  are  occupied  and  interested  than  in  all 
others  put  together.     . 

IX.  The  study  of  plant-forms  opens  to  us  a  world  of  grace, 
harmony,  and  beauty,  that  is  not  without  influence  upon  the 
aesthetic  feelings,  and  the  appreciation  of  art.     Intimately  in- 
volved as  is  the  vegetable  kingdom  with  the  ever-changing 
aspects  of  Nature,  it  is  well  fitted  to  attract  the  mind  to  the 
fine  features  of  scenery,  and  the  grand  effects  of  the  natural 
world. 

X.  Knowledge  of  this  subject  is  a  source  of  pure  and  un- 
failing personal  enjoyment.   Its  objects  constantly  invite  atten- 
tion, and  vary  more  or  less  with  each  locality,  so  that  the 
botanical  student  is  always  at  home,  and  is  always  solicited  by 
something  fresh  and  attractive, 

XI.  The  pursuit  of  Botany  to  its  finer  facts  and  subtler  reve- 
lations involves  the  mastery  of  the  microscope — one  of  the  most 
delicate  and  powerful  of  all  instruments  of  observation.    It 
also  opens  the  field  of  experiment,  and  affords  opportunity  for 
cultivating  manipulatory  processes. 

XII.  Notwithstanding  the  superficial  prejudice  against  Bot- 
any, as  a  kind  of  light,  fancy  subject,  dealing  with  flowers — an 
"  accomplishment"  of  girls — it  is  nevertheless  a  solid  and  noble 
branch  of  knowledge.    It  has  intimate  connections  with  all  the 
other  sciences — physics,  chemistry,  geology,  meterology,  and 
physical  geography — helps  them  all,  and  is  helped  by  all.    It 
treats  of  the  phenomena  of  organization,  and  is  the  proper  in- 
troduction to  the  great  subject  of  Biology — the  science  of  the 
general  laws  of  life.  • 

These  considerations  show  that,  for  the  purpose  we  have  in 
view — the  introduction  of  a  subject  into  education  which  shall 
extend  through  all  its  grades,  and  afford  a  methodical  disci- 
pline in  the  study  of  things — Botany  has  eminent,  if  not  unri- 
valled claims  to  the  attention  of  educators. 


304:  THE    EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF    BOTANY. 


VIII. — DEFECTS   OF   COMMON  BOTANICAL    STUDY. 

But  the  benefits  here  sought  are  not  to  be  gained  by  the 
usual  way  of  dealing  with  the  subject.  For  this  end  it  must 
be  pursued  by  the  direct  study  of  its  objects,  and  in  a  definite 
order.  The  concrete  and  elementary  characters  of  plants  must 
be  made  familiar  before  the  truths  based  upon  them  can 
become  real  mental  possessions.  The  common  method  of 
acquiring  Botany,  in  its  results,  that  is,  by  going  at  once  to 
its  general  principles,  is  hence  peculiarly  futile  for  purposes  of 
education.  The  mere  reading  up  of  vegetable  physiology  is 
no  better  than  getting  any  other  second-hand  information.  To 
learn  a  number  of  hard  botanical  terms  without  really  know- 
ing what  they  represent,  or  to  con  over  classifications  that  are 
equally  void  of  significance,  is  much  the  same  as  any  other 
verbal  cramming.  The  objection  to  ordinary  botanical  study  is, 
not  that  the  books  do  not  tell  the  pupil  a  great  many  interesting 
and  useful  things  about  plants,  but  that  he  studies  it  as  he 
does  ancient  history,  treating  its  objects  as  if  they  had  all  gone 
to  dust  thousands  of  years  ago. 

Besides,  that  which  goes  under  the  name  in  many  of  our 
schools  is  not  Botany  in  any  true  sense ;  it  is  only  a  "branch  of  it. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  century,  the  subject  had  become  so 
overgrown  with  the  mere  pedantries  of  naming,  that  there 
came  a  reaction  against  systematic  Botany,  or  the  study  of  the 
relationships  of  plants,  and  some  went  so  far  as  to  insist  that 
the  whole  science  could  be  "  evolved "  by  studying  a  single 
plant.  Under  the  influence  of  this  tendency,  Botany  became 
merged  in  the  study  of  vegetable  physiology  to  the  neglect  of 
its  descriptive  and  relational  elements.  But  it  is  now  recog- 
nized that  all  parts  of  the  science  are  intimately  correlated,  and 
that  the  inner  relations  of  plants  can  only  be  well  understood 
£y  first  getting  a  knowledge  of  their  outer  relations.  Never- 
theless, the  tendency  to  sink  it  in  mere  physiology  was  strongly 
felt  in  education,  which  instinctively  seized  upon  a  view  of 
the  subject  most  easily  got  through  books.  But  vegetable 
physiology  is  not  Botany  any  more  than  the  rule  of  three  is 
arithmetic ;  and  to  engage  with  the  body  of  generalized  truths, 


AIMS    OP   THE   PKESENT   WOEK.  305 

which  make  up  the  higher  parts  of  the  science,  before  first 
mastering  Descriptive  Botany,  is  like  attacking  the  higher 
problems  of  arithmetic  before  learning  its  simple  rules. 

Nor  is  the  case  much  helped  by  that  casual  inspection  of 
specimens  in  which  students  sometimes  indulge.  To  pick  a 
flower  to  pieces  now  and  then,  or  to  identify  a  few  plants 
by  the  aid  of  glossaries  and  analytical  tables,  and  to  press 
and  label  them,  are,  no  doubt,  useful  operations,  but  they  are 
far  from  answering  the  educational  purposes  here  contem- 
plated. 

IX. AIMS   OF   THE   PEESENT   METHOD. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  present  method,  the  end  kept 
strictly  in  view  has  been  to  make  it  conform  to  the  laws  of 
mental  growth.  Although  it  attempts  to  make  a  beginning 
only,  yet  it  claims  to  begin  right — to  teach  Botany  as  it  should 
be  taught,  and,  in  so  doing,  to  cultivate  systematically  those 
parts  of  the  mind  which  general  education  most  neglects.  It 
is  adapted  to  these  purposes  in  the  following  respects : 

In  the  first  place  it  conforms  to  the  method  of  Nature  by 
making  actual  phenomena  the  objects  of  thought.  It  con- 
tinues the  direct  intercourse  of  the  mind  with  things,  by 
selecting  that  portion  of  the  natural  world  which  seems  best 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  and  providing  for  its  direct  and 
regular  study.  It  is  a  merit  of  the  plan  that  it  permits  no 
evasion  of  this  purpose,  but  compels  attention  to  the  objects 
selected.  There  are  no  lessons  to  "  commit  and  recite ; "  the 
pupils  proper  work  being  to  observe,  distinguish,  compare, 
and  describe ;  and  thus,  from  the  outset,  he  is  exercising  his 
own  faculties  in  the  organization  of  real  knowledge. 

In  the  second  place,  the  present  plan  implies  that  habits 
of  regular  observation  shall  be  commenced  early.  This  is  on 
various  accounts  a  most  important  feature.  The  child  should 
begin  to  be  taught  how  to  notice,  and  wTiat  to  look  for,  be- 
cause it  is  already  spontaneously  engaged  in  the  work,  and 
needs  guidance.  While  its  mental  life  is  (so  to  speak)  external, 
and  it  hungers  for  changing  impressions  and  new  sensations, 
is  certainly  the  time  to  foster  and  direct  this  activity.  It  ia 


306  THE    EDUCATIONAL    CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

necessary  to  furnish  abundant  and  varied  materials  for  simple 
observation  in  this  impressible  sensational  stage  of  mental 
growth,  when,  as  yet,  only  rudimentary  details  can  be  appre- 
ciated. At  this  time  they  can  be  rapidly  acquired  and  easily 
remembered,  while,  as  the  mind  advances  to  the  reflective 
stage,  unless  the  habit  of  observation  has  been  formed,  atten- 
•tion  to  details  becomes  tedious  and  irksome. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  it  is  absurd  to  attempt  teaching 
children  "  science  "  before  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age ;  and, 
if  it  be  meant  the  memorizing  of  the  principles  and  results 
of  science,  the  remark  is  true.  But  it  is  not  true  if  applied  to 
the  early  observation  of  those  simple  facts  which  lead  up  to 
scientific  principles.  Nature  settles  all  that  by  putting  chil- 
dren to  the  study  of  the  properties  of  natural  objects  as  soon 
as  they  are  born.  The  germ  of  scien'ce  is  involved  in  its 
earliest  discriminations.  When  the  child  first  distinguishes 
its  father  from  its  mother,  it  is  doing  the  same  thing  that 
Leverrier  did  in  distinguishing  Neptune  from  a  fixed  star ;  the 
difference  is  only  one  of  degree.  In  putting  children  early  to 
the  work  of  observation,  as  is  provided  for  in  the  First 
Book,  we  are,  therefore,  only  continuing  a  course  already 
entered  upon,  and  which  involves  the  most  natural  and  con- 
genial action  of  the  childish  mind. 

Another"  reason  why  children  should  commence  the  study 
of  objects  early  is,  that  the  habit  may  be  formed  before  the 
mind  acquires  a  bent  in  other  directions ;  is,  because  to  post- 
pone it  is  to  defeat  it.  As  education  is  supposed  to  begin 
when  school  begins,  and  to  consist  mainly  in  learning  lessons, 
children  quickly  get  the  notion  that  nothing  is  properly  "  edu- 
cation "  that  does  not  come  from  books.  But  the  difficulty  here 
is  deeper  still.  The  habit  of  lesson-learning,  of  passively  load- 
ing the  memory  with  verbal  acquisitions,  is  so  totally  different 
a  form  of  mental  action  from  observing,  inquiring,  finding  things 
out,  and  judging  independently  about  them,  that  the  former 
method  tends  powerfully  to  hinder  and  exclude  the  latter.  I 
have  found,  in  my  own  experience,  that  the  younger  children 
took  to  exercises  in  observation  with  freedom,  and  zest,  while 
their  elders,  in  proportion  to  their  school  proficiency,  had  to 


AIMS    OF   THE   PRESENT  WORK.  307 

overcome  something  of  both  disinclination  and  disqualification 
for  the  work. 

In  the  third  place,  the  plan  of  study  here  proposed  recog- 
nizes the  importance  in  education  of  the  element  of  time.  The 
very  conception  of  mental  unfolding  as  a  growth  implies,  as  we 
have  seen,  an  orderly  succession  of  natural  processes  to  which 
time  is  an  indispensable  condition.  Ideas  are  not  only  to  be 
obtained  by  observation,  but  they  are  to  be  organized  into 
knowledge.  That  this  may  be  done  effectually,  so  that  acquisi- 
tions shall  be  lasting,  it  must  be  done  slowly  and  by  numberless 
repetitions.  The  plan  of  the  First  Book  complies  with  this 
condition  by  such  a  construction  of  the  exercises  as  will  secure 
constant  repetition  and  a  thorough  assimilation  of  observations. 

It  complies  with  the  time-requirement  in  another  respect 
also  :  it  is  but  a  first  step,  and  involves  many  succeeding  steps. 
The  mind  grows,  let  it  be  remembered,  for  twenty  or  thirty 
years,  passing  through  successive  phases,  in  which  now  one 
form  of  mental  action  predominates,  and  now  another.  Every 
study,  which  aims  to  cultivate  any  class  of  mental  activities  up 
to  the  point  of  discipline,  must  extend  through  a  considerable 
part  of  this  period.  This  is  well  understood  with  respect  to 
mathematics  and  Latin ;  they  run  through  from  the  ages  of  seven 
or  eight  years  to  college  graduation ;  while  three  months  is 
the  usual  collegiate  allowance  of  time  for  Botany.  As  the 
true  mode  of  treating  the  subject,  both  on  its  own  account  and 
for  educational  purposes,  requires  that  it  be  pursued  in  a 
definite  order  through  the  whole  school  career,  I  have  here 
conformed  to  that  condition  by  presenting  only  the  first  rudi- 
mentary instalment  of  the  subject. 

Fourthly  and  finally,  the  mode  of  study  here  proposed  is 
specially  suited  to  call  forth  those  operations  in  which  grow- 
ing intelligence  consists. 

A  child  old  enough  to  begin  the  study  of  Botany  has 
already  acquired  a  large  stock  of  ideas  of  concrete  things  and 
their  relations.  As  concerns  plants,  it  has  probably  discrimi- 
nated between  leaves,  flowers,  stems,  and  roots.  Its  idea  of  a 
leaf,  for  instance,  though  loose  and  indefinite,  is  still  roughly 
correct.  The  thin,  green  plate  contrasts  strongly  with  the 


308  THE   EDUCATIONAL   CLAIMS    OF   BOTANY. 

other  parts  of  the  plant.  Its  differences  from  flowers  and  stems 
enable  the  mind  readily  to  differentiate  it  in  idea,  while  the 
essential  resemblances  of  leaves  of  all  kinds  make  their  inte- 
gration into  one  general  conception  inevitable. 

Our  primary  scholar,  then,  starting  at  the  level  of  ordinary 
perception,  is  to  increase  his  discriminative  power.  He  must 
learn  to  discover  minuter  differences  and  resemblances,  and  to 
make  his  ideas  more  definite  and  precise.  To  this  end  he 
enters  upon  the  exercises  of  the  First  Book,  and  begins  a  care- 
ful inspection  of  leaves.  He  soon  finds  that  they  vary  consid- 
erably ;  that  their  most  conspicuous  feature — that  which  he 
has  hitherto  regarded  as  the  entire  leaf— forms,  in  most  cases, 
but  one  part  of  the  leaf.  Having  gained  a  clear  idea  of  this 
part,  he  marks  his  conception  of  it  by  a  sign  which  he  finds  to 
be  the  word  Hade.  Another  part,  almost  always  present,  he 
distinguishes  as  the  leaf-stem,  and  names  it  the  petiole ;  and 
still  another  part,  probably  never  before  noticed,  he  learns  to 
recognize  as  the  stipules. 

He  thus  begins  with  the  recognition  of  simple  differences, 
the  idea  of  the  leaf  being  resolved  into  three  component  ideas. 
But  each  of  these  component  ideas  is  crude  from  lack  of  obser- 
vation of  the  varying  forms  of  different  blades,  petioles,  and 
stipules.  Observation  is  now  extended  to  new  specimens,  and 
as  it  goes  forward  new  differences  are  perceived  among  these 
parts.  The  blade  turns  out  to  be  composed  of  different  ele- 
ments. Its  framework  is  differentiated  from  its  soft,  pulpy 
covering,  receives  its  name,  and  then  this  part  opens  a  new 
field  of  observation  in  recognizing  and  comparing  the  different 
modes  and  variations  of  the  venation,  as  it  is  called.  % 

Having  gone  over  simple  and  compound  leaves,  he  next 
passes  to  the  examination  of  the  stem.  Here,  also,  his  first 
notion  is  simple  and  indefinite,  but,  when  a  good  many  have 
been  noticed,  marked  differences  of  appearance  present  them- 
selves, and  stems  begin  to  fall  into  groups,  which  he  describes 
as  round,  square,  erect,  trailing,  creeping,  etc.,  as  the  case  may 
be ;  while  closer  observation  reveals  still  minuter  characters  of 
difference  and  resemblance  among  them.  Inflorescence,  flow- 
ers, and  roots,  are  successively  studied  in  the  same  manner. 


AIMS    OF  THE   PRESENT  WOEK.  309 

Having  become  familar  with  those  general  features  of  plants 
which  can  be  seen  with  the  unassisted  eye,  and  begun  to  form 
a  babit  of  observation,  the  pupil  passes  to  the  Second  Book. 
The  microscope  is  now  called  in ;  the  work  becomes  more  care- 
ful and  minute,  and  the  discipline  of  observation,  comparison, 
and  judgment,  more  close.  All  the  characters  of  plants  are  now 
to  be  considered,  and  each  specimen  begins  to  be  regarded  as 
a  whole.  As  the  learner  is  able  to  deal  with  more  complex 
ideas,  he  compares  them  with  each  other  by  contrasting  the/ 
entire  assemblage  of  characters  presented  in  the  different  cases. 
This  leads  to  the  exercise  of  judgment  in  determining  the  de- 
grees of  resemblance,  and  the  contrasts  they  exhibit.  When 
a  considerable  number  of  plants  have  been  carefully  studied, 
so  that  the  minute  features  of  their  flowers  are  familiar,  they 
begin  to  be  arranged  by  these  characters.  The  more  com- 
plex work  of  classification  is  entered  upon,  and  the  scholar  is 
able  to  see  that  plants  may  be  associated  in  groups  of  different 
grades,  or  values ;  some  characters  being  general  and  constant, 
and  others  limited  and  variable.  All  the  facts  that  the  pupil 
has  accumulated  from  the  beginning  of  study  now  become 
available,  as  they  are  organized  into  systematic  knowledge  upon 
the  basis  of  data  that  are  positively  known.  The  pupil  is  not 
merely  cramming  verbal  statements,  he  is  assimilating  actual 
truths.  He  passes  from  the  acquisition  of  a  multitude  of  special 
particulars  to  the  grasp  of  general  ideas,  after  the  method  by 
which  all  inductive  science  is  formed.  He  knows  by  his  own 
direct  experience  that  flowering  plants  range  themselves  into 
vast  companies  called  classes  by  characters  of  large  generality, 
and  that  these  classes  break  up  into  orders  based  chiefly  upon 
the  more  constant  features  of  floral  structure.  The  orders  again 
are  divided  into  lesser  groups  resembling  each  other  in  the  at- 
tributes of  the  stem,  leaf,  inflorescence,  etc.,  all  of  which  were 
made  familiar  in  the  first  stages  of  Botanical  study. 

Thus  the  mental  process  in  which  intelligence  begins  is  car- 
ried on  by  increasing  complication  to  its  highest  results.  Com- 
mencing with  the  simplest  discriminations  and  comparisons,  and 
the  rudimentary  act  of  classing,  the  pupil  at  first  arranges  the 
facts  observed  into  small  groups  in  accordance  with  their  re- 


310  THE    EDUCATIONAL    CLAIMS    OP   BOTANY. 

semblances  and  contrasts.  As  he  gradually  becomes  able  to 
grasp  more  numerous  and  remote  relations  of  similarity,  he 
takes  in  larger  assemblages  of  characters,  and  is  required  to  ex- 
ercise his  judgment  in  working  out  the  relationships  among 
larger  divisions  of  plant-forms,  and  at  last,  by  the  aid  of  man- 
uals, he  is  ready  to  pass  to  the  complete  classification  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  is  thus  prepared  to  comprehend  those 
great  laws  of  the  multiplication  and  distribution  of  organic  life 
in  space  and  time  which  are  so  impressively  disclosed  in  the 
natural  history  of  the  Vegetable  World. 

Pursued  in  this  practical  and  systematic  way,  beginning 
early  and  going  carefully  and  gradually  over  the  rudiments, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  of  the  sciences  can 
be  made  an  "  exact  and  solid "  acquisition,  while  the  mental 
habits  of  attention  and  observation  are  cultivated,  aptitude  in 
the  accurate  use  of  descriptive  language  is  acquired,  the  capacity 
of  self-reliant  research  is  developed,  there  is  training  in  com 
parison,  inference,  and  reason,  on  the  basis  of  known  facts,  and 
a  methodical  discipline  of  the  judgment  is  secured — all  of  which 
are  the  most  valuable  results  of  rational  education. 


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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


